flexinduction biology

Evaluation

2008-05-11T16:20:00.000-07:00

I, for the most part, enjoyed this unit. It is always good to be refreshed on out role in restoring a balance to the energy cycles

1. The assignments I was most proud of were the first compendium, the first lab activity and the second quiz, which was only the second one I got a perfect score on.

2. I certainly could have worked harder on the lab project for this unit. I also didn't review the second part of the unit as much as I did the first part, just because it was longer.

3. I think I should bet a low A or high B for the unit.

4. The next unit does not exist, but for my next class, whatever it is, I can certainly put a little time in it daily/nightly and not do a lot of work just two or three days a week.

Species Interaction

2008-05-11T15:24:00.001-07:00

scientific name: Streptococcus Durans
common name: cheddar bacteria
relationship: mutualistic/symbiotic/commensal
Humans and bacteria have apparently found the benefit of living together
as the bacteria have a good environment to live in inside humans
and humans use them to maintain health and immunity.

scientific name: Streptococcus Cremoris
common name: sour cream bacteria
relationship: mutualistic/symbiotic/commensal
Humans and bacteria have apparently found the benefit of living together
as the bacteria have a good environment to live in inside humans
and humans use them to maintain health and immunity.

scientific name: Lactobacillus
common name: dairy bacteria (yogurt)
relationship: mutualistic/symbiotic/commensal
Humans and bacteria have apparently found the benefit of living together
as the bacteria have a good environment to live in inside humans
and humans use them to maintain health and immunity.

scientific name:Coturnix cotumix japonica
common name: quail
relationship: mutualistic/predator, prey
Humans have come to enjoy the entertaining antics
of quail as well as their delicious and nourishing meat.
non-domesticated (mostly)

scientific name:Roseburia
common name: intestinal bacteria
relationship: mutualistic/symbiotic/commensal
Humans and bacteria have apparently found the benefit of living together
as the bacteria have a good environment to live in inside humans
and humans use them to maintain health and immunity.

scientific name: Canis Familiaris
common name: dog (rottweiler)
relationship: mutualistic
Domesticated animal

Scientific name: Streptococcus Boulardii
common name: bacteria in Kombucha tea
relationship: mutualistic/symbiotic/commensal
Humans and bacteria have apparently found the benefit of living together
as the bacteria have a good environment to live in inside humans
and humans use them to maintain health and immunity.

scientific name: Aphonopelma rusticum
common name: Arizona tarantula
relationship: mutualistic
non-domesticated animal

scientific name:Pituophis
common name: bull snake, gopher snake
relationship: mutualistic (beneficial to us)
If humans have been smart enough to put them in their gardens to take
care of pests, they really have evolved!

scientific name:Felis
common name: house cat
relationship:mutualistic
Humans have benefited from the companionship
domesticated pets can give. Cats have benefited from the
cat food!

scientific name: taurus
common name: bovine
relationship: mutualistic/symbiotic/predator, prey
domesticated animal
Cows can benefit from the grazing lands we provide and close care...
until they end up on our plates.

scientific name: Gallus gallus domesticus
common name: legbar hen
relationship: mutualistic/ predator, prey
domesticated and delicious animal.

scientific name: Musca Domestica
common name: house fly
relationship: mutualistic, parasitic
Name suggests it is domesticated, but that refers to its adaptation
to living with, around humans
Humans have adapted by coming up with fly swatters,
sprays, and fly pater.

Overpopulation or Overconsumption?

2008-05-10T16:39:00.001-07:00

It is certainly true that the impact of the population increase in the less developed countries will have a major impact on the environment and food demand. Is there much more that can be done other than attempting a population control in those countries? Of course there is. Consumption seems to be as much, if not more so, a contributing factor to food demand and environmental impact.
Those who live in the more developed countries consume almost 100 times the amount of energy needed to be sustained. What's more, most of this energy is from nonrenewable sources, such as fossil fuels. Water consumption is rampant, especially in agriculture and industry. But it is used by the everyday person in a more developed country for bathing, irrigation, cooking and flushing toilets than it is for drinking. People in more developed countries are irresponsible with food consumption as well. Not only do they generally consume more food than needed, they consume a lot more meat than needed. Meanwhile the lack of protein in the diets of many people in the less developed countries is alarming. The excess consumption of meat by people in the more developed countries, particularly the US, also uses a lot more grains than if the people had a vegetable-high diet.
Of course, our consumption certainly affects the people of less developed countries. Our demands for goods and services put a demand on them to work with whatever will get the job done quickest. This usually means environmentally detrimental practices that they perpetuate because of the competitive nature of people in more developed countries. This causes adverse effects to the land. Some of these ecosystems, such as the forests and marine ecosystems may never recover. This simply adds to the energy and food crisis.
The solution is obvious. If the more developed countries lead by example in areas of energy conservation and innovating renewable sources they will greatly reduce energy used worldwide. This would lead to a surplus usable by less developed countries. They will also push less developed countries to follow suit.

Human Population Demographics

2008-05-10T12:15:00.000-07:00

1. The high fertility rate country was Botswana with a rate of 4.2 children

2. The low fertility rate country was Australia with a rate of 1.8 children.

3. If for every couple, there is an average of 4 children, as in Botswana, than the ratio of children to parents is 2:1. That means the ratio of children to grandparents is 4:1 and so on. This creates a pyramid effect when looking at populations.

4. In a country with a lower fertility rate, like Australia, the opposite is true. There is a slightly unbalanced number of children to parents, with 1.8 children to 2 parents. That means there are 4 grandparents to 1.8 children, simply speaking. With a life expectancy average of 76.6 years, the population begins to thin out progressively starting at about 55. This creates an oval effect when looking at populations.

5. It is tough to give descriptive words for each environment because each generation will determine what their environment will be like, but I will try
For a country with a lower fertility rate: reserved, conservative, wealthy (in comparison to other parts of the world), middle-class, developed, educated, 9 to 5, arts, transportation-heavy, stressed, little religion.
For a country with high fertility rates: strict, family-oriented, undeveloped, hungry, "primitive," transportation-lacking, young work force, lower-class, aided, sexually (over) active (?), religious.

Unit IV: Compendium II

2008-05-08T18:17:00.000-07:00

I. Human Evolution
A. Origin of life
B. Biological evolution
C. Classification of humans
D. Evolution of hominids
E. Evolution of humans

II. Global ecology and human interferences
A. Nature of ecosystems
B. Energy flow
C. Global Biogeochemical cycles

III. Human Population, planetary resources and conservation
A. Human population growth
B. Human use of resources and pollution
C. Biodiversity
D. Working toward a sustainable society

DISCLAIMER: The opening paragraph of chapter 22 sums up a world view that does not coincide with my personal beliefs BASED ON AS MUCH SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE AS THE THEORY PRESENTED IN CHAPTER 22. It poses the question, "Could a chemical evolution have produced the first cell(s) on the primitive earth. My answer to this question is: If it could, it hasn't been proven to. Let's recall the experiment that Carl Sagan hailed in his classic series, "Cosmos." He explained Stanley Miller's experiment that simulated the earth's early atmosphere. There were amino acids produced by these experiments, but an organic protein that led to biological synthesis was never produced. Even the means of amino acid synthesis is questionable as it was managed and produced thanks to the INTELLIGENCE of the scientist(s) behind the experiment. Later the experiments were deemed fairly irrelevant as the idea of what the atmosphere was made of changed. There has not yet been a proven piece of evidence that the events leading to life, believed by most scientists, is accurate or reliable, or FACTUAL. That is the first stumbling block to overcome before even moving on to the more advanced evolution proposed by chapter 22. If those are overcome than we can move on to more advanced hurdles that stand defiantly in the way of the simply-stated theory behind the writing within. Much less we start this chapter after the beginning of the earth...and thus our solar system...and thus the universe. The odds of the beginning of each one of these is beyond improbable, astronomically at odds, and impossible (mathematically speaking). Therefore the review herein is stressed to be nothing more than an unproven theory that does not agree with my own...or the empirical and evidential scientific process. We must admit that the origin of the universe...or earth...or its inhabitants cannot be empirically evident, as it already happened. Therefore it is up to us as REASONING beings to decide which theory is the most logical for the origin of the universe. I am confident in saying that I do not believe that the theory of Neo-Darwinian Evolution is the most logical.

A. Origin of life
The fundamental principle of biology states that all living things are made of cells. Every cell comes from a preexisting cell. Therefore the very first living thing must have come from non-living chemicals. The theory presented herein would simply state that there was a slow increase in the complexity of chemicals that would produce the first cells on the earth.
The sun and the planets are believed to have been formed over a 10-billion-year period. At 4.6 billion years ago the solar system was formed and in place. The earth's gravitational field is strong enough to have an atmosphere. With less mass there would be no atmosphere. IF MORE THAN CONDITIONS WOULD BE MUCH MORE LIKE THAT OF PLANETS LIKE VENUS...unlivable. Possibly, the early earth's atmosphere was formed by gases escaping from volcanoes. If that was the case the early atmosphere would have been made of: H2O, N2 and CO2, with small amounts of H2 and CO. This would have been a very hot atmosphere and water would have been in gas form, creating dense clouds. As the earth cooled the water became liquid. The oceans could have been formed by millions of years of heavy rainfall.
Small organic compounds might have been formed through the concentration of organic compounds and much available energy. Stanley Miller's experiment (spoke of in DISCLAIMER) produced organic compounds by synthesizing an environment similar to that thought of to be the early earth's atmosphere.
RNA is thought to be the first basic macromolecule thought to carry out replication and continuation of organic synthesis, before DNA, the more stable protein complex, became dominant. This would have been some 3.5 billion years ago. The Protein-first hypothesis states that since amino acids join together when exposed to dry heat, perhaps they formed in puddles or something similar. When they returned to water they formed polypeptides which would aid in the forming cells.
Sidney Fox, who proposed the above stated hypothesis, also hypothesizes that lipid introduction to microspheres would have produced a lipid-protein that could carry on metabolism, but could reproduce. This cell would have been a fermenter since there was not free oxygen.
The supporters of these two different hypotheses about how DNA and, therefore, true cells could come about.

How the earth may have looked very
early on.

B. Biological Evolution

If cells evolved, the first cells would have been prokaryotic. These are cells without nuclei. From them would have come eukaryotes, then multicellular organisms and onward. Biological evolution is the process through which species change. Descent from the first cells could explain why all organisms have similar chemical makeup. Adaptations are the biological changes that help an organism survive. Charles Darwin formed the theory of evolution while spending time in the tropics. He concluded that lifeforms are so varied from place to place because of evolutionary adaptation. Fossils could be the best evidence for evolution. Paleontologists look to the stratum to determine or hypothesize the age of a creature. Transitional fossils would be those with characteristics of two different groups. One defended example is the archaeopteryx, which is a bird with reptile-like features. Because of the distribution of vegetation in various climates, scientists conclude that it also adapted to its environment. The similarity of bones in animals is another also used as evidence for evolution. Most proponents of evolution believe that natural selection was a very important factor in why we have the species we have today. Natural selection refers to the survival of organisms best suited to their environment.
C. Classification of humans
Through classification we can determine which organisms are most alike. Organisms of the same domain have general characteristics alike. Those in the same genus have much more specific characteristics in common. DNA data is being used more and more to trace the ancestry of species. Humans are primates, mammals that have binocular vision, grasping hands, larger brains and lower reproductive rates. They have mobile and opposable limbs and digits. There are many similarities between the skeleton of humans and of chimpanzees. However important differences are why human walk upright and chimpanzees do not.

Human belong to the moderately general
class of mammals.

D. Evolution of hominids
According to the evolutionary tree all primates evolved from a common ancestor. According to it there was a common ancestor for monkeys apes and hominids 45 MYA (million years ago.) There was one for all apes about 15 MYA. Then one for African apes 7MYA. The split between the ape and human lineage is thought to have occurred at that time. Humans couldn't have evolved from apes because they are contemporaries, but would have shared a common ancestor. Biologists do not agree on what the first hominid would be. Hominid features include the bipedal posture, larger brains and flat faces. Some of the fossil pieces thought to be related to hominids are those of the species Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Orrorin tugenesis and Ardipithecus kadabba.

Human, Darren Naish, at the family reunion
with artists' renditions of what some hominids
may have looked like.

E. Evolution of humans

Fossils are called "Homo" if the brain size is 600cm or larger, jaws and teeth resemble humans and tool use is evident. Homo habilis would be the first, dated between 2 and 1.9 MYA. They would have probably been omnivores. Since bones at their campsites have cut marks, they had tools. They probably used very crude rocks to do the work. Society and culture would have begun here if there was a cooperation between hunting and gathering. Speech and knowledge transmission were vital to this process. Homo erectus would have followed between 1.9 and .3 MYA. H. erectus would have had a larger brain and a flatter face.
Most scientists believe in the "Out-of-Africa" theory of human evolution: that homo sapiens evolved in Africa from homo erectus and then migrated. Neandertals are thought to be the another branch in the evolutionary chain. They would have had a larger brain than the modern human and would have been far more heavily muscled. Cro-Magnon DNA is supposed to be very different from Neandertals to the point that there was no interbreeding. They may have lived side by side. They would have been such advanced hunters that they may have been responsible for the extinction of many large animals.
Humans are widely distributed and have many different anatomic features. Some believe that some of these differences may be adaptations to their environment. Others cannot be explained. All humans are extremely similar.

Though there are variations
all humans are very similar.

II. Global Ecology and Human Interferences

A. Nature of ecosystems
The Biosphere is every where on earth where organisms are found. It is really one giant ecosystem, however there are divisions of ecosystems based on temperature and rainfall, for terrestrial ecosystems, or biomes. Some are: tropical rain forest, tropical grassland, temperate forest of grassland, taiga, desert and tundra. There are two types of aquatic ecosystems, saltwater and freshwater. The freshwater ecosystems are standing water and running water.
Biotic components of an ecosystem are the living organisms. Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food from inorganic nutrients and outside energy. These are most plants and algae. Heterotrophs need a source of organic nutrients. Some are herbivores, that only feed on plants or algae. Some are carnivores, that is meat eaters. Some are both; these are called omnivores. Other still are detritus feeders, which means they feed on the decomposing part of organic matter. Some of these are called decomposers because their feeding breaks down and releases nutrients for plant use. A niche is an organisms role in an ecosystem. Its interaction is part of the whole of the ecosystem. Every ecosystem is characterized by two factors, energy flow and chemical cycling. Nutrients absorbed or made by producers is passed on to consumers (heterotrophs). Then it is absorbed by decomposers who will return them to the soil or atmosphere where they will again be absorbed by the producers.

The Rain forest is the wettest of
all terrestrial ecosystems.

B. Energy flow

A food web is a diagram that describes the feeding relationships (trophic) of organisms in an ecosystem. They give us a picture of the energy flow. A grazing food web describes that which begins with producers and ends with the top carnivores. A detrital food web shows that which starts with detritus and moves to decomposers and on up to the top carnivores. If a diagram shows a single path of energy flow it is called a food chain. A trophic level contains all the organisms that feed at a single link in the food chain. Only about 10% of the energy of one trophic level is available to the next level. That is why an ecosystem can only support so many carnivores. Because of the loss of energy at each level it can be described as an ecological pyramid. It can also be described this way due to the amount of organisms and their weight, or biomass, at each level.

A food web of an temperate forest
ecosystem.

C. Global biogeochemical cycles

All organisms require various organic and/or inorganic nutrients. These chemicals circulate through biotic and geological components. This can either be done in a gaseous or a sedimentary (taken from soil by producers and passed on) cycle. Some different components of cycling are reservoirs or exchange pools. Human activities upset the normal balance by removing chemicals from reservoirs and exchange pools.
The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, works like this: Evaporation occurs. Once in the atmosphere the water vapor condenses and falls as precipitation. Runoff makes water flow into lakes, streams, wetlands and the ocean. Other water percolates into the soil and some goes deep down into aquifers, which return in springs or wells.
Humans interfere by: withdrawing water from aquifers, clearing vegetation and building which prevents percolation, and pollute water and add sewage and chemicals.
The carbon cycle works in this way: Producers take carbon dioxide from the air and through photosynthesis. They turn it into valuable nutrients which are consumed by auto and heterotrophs. When organisms respire carbon is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and then is cycled back to plants. Dead and living organisms are reservoirs for carbon. Some of these are fossil fuels from plant and animal remains that have been converted over time.
Human interference has caused more CO2 to be deposited in the atmosphere than released. There is practically twice as much CO2 being released as there already has been in the atmosphere. The release of certain gases like NO and CH4 as well as CO2 has caused a change in climate that may make the earth's temperature rise, among other things. It is often called by its archaic name: global warming. Now it is mostly referred to as climate change, because much more is happening than a rise in temperature.
Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the atmosphere. Plants do not utilize N2 and it can limit the amount of growth in an ecosystem. It does, however use ammonium. N2 is converted to ammonium by some bacteria and it is used by the host plants of these bacteria. Plants also use nitrates, NO3, Nitrates are made when high energy occurrences make them bind with oxygen. Soil bacteria can also convert NH4 (ammonium) into No2, nitrite, which is converted by other bacteria into nitrate. During assimilation plants turn the nitrate into proteins and nucleic acids. Dentrification is the return of nitrate to N2 which counterbalances nitrogen fixation. Human activities double the fixation rate. The runoff enters lakes and rivers where overgrowth occurs. When the overgrowth dies off the decomposers will boom which ends in a large fish kill. The burning of fossil fuels has put too much nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air. They attach to water vapor and come down in rainfall. The acidic rain lowers crop yields and eats the marble, metal and stonework. These gases also combine with sunlight to make smog which doesn't allow the proper escape of pollutants out of the atmosphere.
Phosphorus is released through geological upheaval and through the slow weathering of rocks. It is used by plants to make ATP, phospholipids and nucleotides for DNA and RNA. Consumers get it from producers. Through decay phosphates are once again available to producers. Its scarcity controls the size of populations.
Humans boost the supply of phosphate through mining. This also causes overgrowth in waterways. The pollutants produced are very dangerous because they are not easily degraded and become more and more concentrated as they pass through the food chain. The oceans are most greatly affected by all the pollutions, where many species of fish are on the brink of extinction.

Acid deposition has killed these trees.

III. Human Population, Planetary Resources and Conservation

A. Human population growth

Since about 1750 the growth rate of the the human population has increased steadily. Then around the 1930's the population spiked in the less-developed countries (LDCs.)This is very different than the population growth in more-developed countries (MDCs) where growth is modest and people enjoy a good living standard. In LDCs most people live in poverty.
Between 1850 and 1950 the MDCs doubled their populations, thanks to modern medicine and new public health standards. Then there was a decline in birth rates around 1950 so population increase has been slowed. The MDCs have a growth rate of about 0.1% as a whole. The U.S. however, has a growth rate of about 0.6%. This partly due to constant migration to the U.S. from other countries. There is no leveling off to the U.S. population growth. In the LDCs death rates decreased drastically after World War II, thanks to modern medicine. The birth rate remained high. Between 1960 and 1965 the growth rate was about 2.5%, the height of growth rate. The collective rate is about 1.6% now. Between 2002 and 2050 the population of the LDCs is expected to go up to about 8 billion. Some of this will happen in Africa, but most will be in Asia, because so many in Africa are dying of AIDS. Asia has been and will experience water loss, loss of biodiversity and urban pollution. Because more women are reaching reproductive years, than women leaving them, the population is increasing in the LDCs.

Because of the high birth rate in countries like
Burma, the country has a young population
that will continue to grow.

B. Human Use of Resources and Pollution

Resources are any biotic or abiotic substance that helps meet needs. Nonrenewable resources are limited. They include land, fossil fuels and minerals. These sources will run out. Renewable resources are naturally replenished. However some of these, such as animals, have population thresholds, below which they are unrecoverable. Pollution is a side effect of some resource consumption. It is an negative alteration of the environment. The amount of pollution put out is proportional to the size of the population. On an average there 83 persons living per square mile on the planet, including all the uninhabitable parts of the world!About 40% of the population lives near a coastline. In the US more than half the population live near the coast. This leads to beach erosion, which decreases marine population and decreases the buffer zone for storms. The loss of wetlands, for example, contributed to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina. Forty percent of the earth's land is desert. Desertification is the conversion of semiarid land to desert. It usually begins through the overgrazing of animals on semiarid land. Estimations say that 75% of all rangeland is in danger of desertification. Rain forest land is also subject to desertification when it is deforested. The soil is not suitable for long-term farming, because the nutrients are all in the current vegetation. When it is removed the soil loses its fertility quickly.
Though clean drinking water should be the right of all people, most freshwater utilized by industry and agriculture. Seventy percent of all freshwater is used to irrigate crops. The freshwater demand is due in large to these activities. In MDCs more water is used for bathing, cooking, flushing toilets and watering lawns than drinking. Damming has caused extensive flow loss on most major rivers of the world. Sometimes the amount of water lost to evaporation and seepage from dams is equal to the amount made available. An absurd amount of water has been used out of aquifers, supply that has been there for possibly thousands of years. The High Plains Aquifer has been depleted of over half of its water supply. Subsidence, settling of the soil, occurs as a result. This causes sinkholes. By 2025 2/3 of the world's population may be living in areas with serious water shortage. Some solutions may help. Planting drought-resistant and saltwater-resistant crops. Using drip irrigation saves about 50% more water than sprinkler methods. Farmers have little incentive to switch, though. Adopting new conservation plans could help industries cut water demands by more than half!
Food supply generally comes from three activities: growing crops, raising animals and fishing the seas. Modern farming methods have increased food production but have had damaging effects. Some of these are pollution from fertilizers, cancer-causing agents and loss of soil fertility from pesticides, water loss, pollution and loss of fuel sources. Some helpful practices minimize harm. Intercropping can cause the use of less fertilizers. Contour farming preserves top soil and water. Because livestock feed on most of the crops produced, at least in the US, the consumption of less meat and more vegetables will greatly reduced the poor farming practices and fuel consumption of both industries.
Sources of energy are integral to modern society. Some are renewable and some are not. Environmental degradation occurs due to use of nonrenewable energy sources. About 75% of the world's energy comes from fossil fuels. Nuclear power is also nonrenewable and its effects are dangerous. Persons in the MDCs use as much energy in one day as persons in LDCs do in one year! Most of this is fossil fuels, of course. Climate change and the "greenhouse effect" have been caused due to the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests. Some effects could be: the major rise of the oceans, loss of wetlands, danger to coastal cities and loss of coral reefs. Renewable energy sources include: hydropower (if used correctly can produce plenty of energy without detrimental effects to the environment.), geothermal energy, wind power and solar energy.
Minerals are nonrenewable raw materials like fossil fuels, sand, gravel, phosphate and metals. Heavy metals are detrimental to human health and their hazrdous wastes must be discarded carefully. Strip mining for minerals makes the land devoid of vegetation and washes harmful substances into water supplies. The most common contaminates made by mining and other industrial products are heavey metals and synthetic organic chemicals.

C. Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of life through numbers of different species. Biodiversity is in great crisis as there are staggering predictions of extinction of species. Habitat loss is a major player in loss of biodiversity.Human occupation and deforesting are causing habitat loss especially in the tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Alien species, those introduced into new ecosystems, often drive out the native species. Pollution causes: acid deposition, climate change, ozone depletion and directly kills animals when wastes put synthetic organic chemicals directly into the food supply. Overexploitation, that is the over extraction of species to a devastating reduction, is threatening extinction of species of plants and animals. Disease from domestic animal encroachment is fatal to local wildlife. Some extinctions may occur simply to disease.
Biodiversity is very important to the environment and to the population. Many plants are important for medicinal reasons. There are an estimated 328 types of drugs yet to be discovered in plants of the tropical rain forests. Bacterium play roles in cure and also in research of their damaging effects. Animals that carry them are important to researchers. Wild crops are still important because they contain different genetic makeup that may be important to virus resistance or have natural pesticides. Natural predators and pest control are preferable to chemical pesticides. Flowering plants need certain birds, bats and insects to pollinate them. Some forested areas are more valuable for the trees' output (fruit, wax) than their timber. The one is a renewable source, the other is not. It is more economical to save ecosystems rather than individual species. Disposing of waste, properly, is one method. Using partially treated wastewater lets soil bacteria ensure a complete cleansing of wastes. Using wetlands to breakdown pollutants is also efficient. There is no substitute for freshwater. It is absolutely necessary. Using it effectively through forest and wetland protection will ensure its availability. Soil erosion is curable simply by keeping the ecosystem intact. Trees and plants will regulate climate when allowed.

Urban sprawl endangers the local wildlife.

D. Working toward a sustainable society

Sustainable societies could always provide the same amount of goods and services for future generations. The MDCs excessive consumption as well as the population growth of the LDCs stresses the environment. Wasteful practices are causing great harm to the environment. Urban sprawl is causing loss of habitat. More natural practices can help us reach a sustainable society. Nature gives us clues. It uses only solar energy as its renewable source. Cycles ensure the return of materials to use. Following these cues and preserving the natural ecosystems is integral to a sustainable society. Certain practices must be done in areas from agriculture to enterprise. Efficient cars, that are light and gas thrifty, are one change we could make to approve efficiency of transportation and sustainability. Both city and country need to be sustainable because they depend on each other for goods and services. In rural areas the emphasis should be on preservation as much as possible. Preserving native grasses and planting trees is integral to the preservation of top soil. Some measures that can be taken are:

using cover crops between cash crops, multiuse farming, composting and organic gardening, using drip irrigation and retention ponds, increasing the planting of cultivars, using precision farming, using natural pest control, planting a variety of species, planting multipurpose trees, maintaining and restoring wetlands, using renewable forms of energy and support local farmers, fisherman and feed stores

Some possible ways to help make cities sustainable are:

using energy efficient transportation, solar and geothermal energy sources for heat and seawater air-conditioning, Using green roofs, or wild gardens on the tops of buildings for temperature control/food/runoff, Use sediments, artificial wetlands and holding ponds for storm-water, plant native species to attract natural wildlife and use less water, create greenbelts using walking and biking paths, revitalize old sections before building new ones, use efficient lighting fixtures and promote sustainability through recycling business equipment and using low-maintenance building materials.

A combination green roof and park.

With better assessment of funds with consideration of well-being and environmental impact we may better plan for the future and direct energies where they would be best used.

Unit IV: Compendium I

2008-05-06T18:53:00.000-07:00

I. Reproductive System
A. The Life Cycle
B. Male Reproductive System
C.Female Reproductive System
D. Female Hormone Levels
E. Control of Reproduction
F. STDs

II. Development and Aging

A. Fertilization
B. Pre-embryonic/Embryonic Development
C. Fetal Development
D. Pregnancy and Birth
E. Development After Birth

A. The life cycle

Puberty is a sequence in which a person becomes sexually mature. Puberty is usually completed between 11 and 13 for girls and between 14 and 16 for boys. The reproductive system is the one system of the body that differs greatly between males and females. Male reproductive organs (testes) produce sperm. Female reproductive organs (ovaries) produce eggs. In men the sperm are transported through the penis. Females transport the eggs to the uterus. The penis delivers sperm to the vagina through intercourse. The vagina will also be the birth canal. The uterus holds the developing fertilized egg. Both the testes and the ovaries produce sex hormones. The respective hormones give masculine or feminine qualities.
Mitosis duplicates our 46 chromosomes before dividing. However, in meiosis, which only occurs in the testes and ovaries for reproduction, the diploid number of chromosomes is reduced to twenty three. This way when the sperm fertilizes the egg, the zygote (or new cell) has 46 chromosomes, instead of the number doubling each generation.

This zygote will one day be a full-
fledged human.

B. Male reproductive system
The testes are the main sex organ (gonads). They are paired and they found in the sacs of the scrotum. When sperm is produced it is stored for maturation in the epididymis. Once mature the sperm enters a vas deferens. They may be stored here for a time. The vas deferentia wrap around the bladder and empty into an ejaculatory duct. These empty into the urethra. Sperm leave the penis in semen during ejaculation. The semen carries secretions from the prostate, bulbourethral glands and the seminal vesicles. The seminal fluid contains nutrients, chemicals and sugars. All are important to sperm energy and transportation.
The penis is the organ of male intercourse. This consists of a shaft and a tip called the glans penis. Erectile tissue contains spaces for blood. This spongy tissue fills with blood when stimulated by NO (nitric oxide) and cGMP (cyclic guanosine monophosphate). The veins that take away the blood are compressed and the penis becomes erect. A sphincter closes off the bladder which keeps urine from entering the urethra. As stimulation increases seminal fluid enter the urethra and the glands inject secretions. Rhythmic muscle contractions push the seminal fluid out of the urethra. This is ejaculation. This is one aspect of the male orgasm (sensations, both physical and psychological that occur at the climax of sexual intercourse.) The penis becomes flaccid again after ejaculation or after loss of sexual arousal.
Testes descend into the scrotum from the abdominal cavity during puberty. This is important because the temperature of the abdominal cavity is too high to produce sperm. A testis is made up of compartments called lobules. Each contain one to three seminiferous tubules. Inside spermatogenesis (production of sperm) is occurring. The original sperm cell for spermatogenesis is the spermagonia. It divides into two primary spermocytes through mitosis. Te secondary spermocytes are the meiosis division of primary spermocytes. Each secondary spermocyte becomes two early spermatids. When these mature they become sperm. The process is nourished and regulated by sertoli cells. The process takes about 74 days. The parts of a mature sperm are the head, the middle piece and the tail. The head contains a nucleus and enzymes needed to penetrate the egg. The tail acts as a flagellum.
The hypothalamus is in control of hormone release and therefore testes' function. It secretes a hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH.) This stimulates the petuitary gland to secrete the gonadotropic hormones FSH and LH. FSH promotes the production of sperm when found in males. LH controls testosterone production when found in males. Testosterone is essential for the development of the male reproductive organs. Testosterone also contributes to other distinctive characteristics of males (i.e. they tend to be taller, hairier and broader than females.)

This cross-section shows the male
reproductive system.

C. Female reproductive system
The female gonads are the ovaries. They are also paired. They produce eggs. The oviducts, or fallopian tubes extend from the uterus to the ovaries. When an egg bursts from an ovary it is swept into the fallopian tube by its finger-like projections called fimbriae. The egg is then propelled by ciliary movement and muscle contraction to the uterus. An egg will generally live only 6-24 hours without being fertilized. Fertilization and zygote formation take place in the oviduct, normally. The developing embryo wil usually arrive at the uterus after several days. It will then embed in the uterine lining. The uterus is a muscular organ with thick walls. It is about the size and shape of a pear. The cervix, at the bottom of the uterus, joins almost a right angle. Development of the embryo and fetus takes place in the uterus. It starts at only about 5cm wide but can grow to 30cm for the development of a fetus.The endometrium, which lines the uterus, is essential to the formation of placenta, which nourishes the fetus. A small opening in the cervix leads to the vaginal canal. The vagina is a tube that is functional for intercourse (for fertilization) and as the birth canal. It also is the exit for menstrual flow.
The vulva is the term for the collective of external female genitalia. Two large, hair-covered fold of skin called the labia majora extend back from the mons pubis, a fatty area under the pubic hair. Two small folds lay just inside the labia majora called the labia minora. They extend from the vaginal opening to form a foreskin for the glans clitoris. The clitoris is contains erectile tissue that fills with blood when aroused. The cleft between the labia minora contains the urethra and the vaginal opening. The urinary and sexual systems, unlike in males, are separate.
The labia minora, vaginal wall and clitoris become engorged with blood during stimulation. The breasts also swell and the nipples become erect. The labia majora enlarge as well. The vagina is lubricated by glands that secrete mucus and fluid. The clitoris is what is actually stimulated in sexual intercourse and can swell to two to three times its normal size. Orgasms occur at the height of sexual response which causes the walls of the vagina and uterus to contract rhythmically. There is no refractory period for females after orgasms and can have many in one sexual experience.

D. Female hormone levels
An ovary has many follicles, each containing an immature egg called an oocyte. At puberty a female will have somewhere between 300,000-400,000 follicles. A very small number of these will ever mature. During the reproductive years a female will only produce one egg a month. The follicle goes through three different stages and then back, in what is called the ovarian cycle. The primary follicle (stage 1) contains epithelial cells that surround an oocyte. The secondary follicle (stage 2) surrounds the oocyte with follicular fluid and washes it. The vesicular follicle (stage 3) continues to fill with fluid until it balloons the ovary wall. When an oocyte goes through meiosis it reduces after the first stage into the secondary oocyte and the polar body, which simply holds the discarded chromosomes. If fertilize the 14th day of a 28 day cycle. If fertilization does not occur then a new cycle will begin with menstruation.
Estrogen is mainly responsible for secondary functions in women, such as fat distribution (curves and breasts) and, generally, less body hair than men. Progesterone is also involved in breast development and more hormones are also involved in milk production. Between the ages of 45 and 55 the ovarian cycle will, likely, cease. This is called menopause. The ovaries no longer produce estrogen or progesterone. Completion of menopause d the secondary oocyte will undergo meiosis 2. Before any of this occurs the oocyte is released from the ovary by bursting from the vesicular follicle. This is called ovulation. When the vesicular follicle has released the oocyte it becomes a corpus luteum which is a gland-like structure. If the egg is not fertilized the corpus luteum disinegrates. The ovary also produces the sex hormones. The corpus luteum will produce progesterone while the primary and secondary follicles produce estrogen. Like in males, females produce GnRH (hypothalamus), FSH ans LH (pituitary)The last two stimulate the ovarian cycle in females. Gonadotropic hormones occur intermittently throughout the cycle. Through the feedback process the hormone levels cause ovulation onis usually considered after a year with no menstruation period. The 28-day cycle, or uterine cycle, is marked by four definite stages. In the first the endometrium disintegrates and causes the blood vessels to rupture. Blood and tissue, called the menses, passes out of the vagina. This is known as menstruation. In the second stage the endometrium thickens with the increased production of estrogen. In the third, usually on day 14, ovulation occurs. The last period, increased production of progesterone causes the endometrium to double or triple in thickness. The endometrium is now ready to receive a developing embryo. If this does not happen, sex hormones will decrease and cause the endometrium to break down again.
During intercourse many dsperm will travel to the oviduct where the egg is. Only one will fertilize the egg. If it becomes a zygote it will begin to develop on its way down the oviduct to the uterus. It will attach to the endometrium and implant. Pregnancy has now begun. The placenta sustains the embryo. This is where exchange occurs between maternal and fetal tissue. The placenta will initially produce the hormone HCG. Detection of it in the bloodstream or urine signifies pregnancy. Increased production of progesterone will signal the ceasing of follicle beginning. The endometrium does not break down resulting in no menstruation.

See ovulation take place!

E. Control of reproduction

Birth control methods are used to decrease the likelihood of reproduction. The most reliable method is abstinence, or the refrain from sexual intercourse. It is also the most reliable inhibitor of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs.) There are a number of birth control methods and many used are contraceptives. These are devices or medications that inhibit pregnancy. Some are male and female condoms, birth control pills, implants (usually contain hormones), and many others.
Infertility is the inability to become pregnant after a year of intercourse. About 15% of all couple are infertile. The cause in 40% is the male. The cause in 40% is the female and the cause in 20% is both. Often infertility in males is due to low sperm count.When males are inactive the temperature in the testes can be too high for proper sperm production. Overweight females have trouble conceiving because small follicles and ovulation fails. Pelvic inflammation can cause blockage of the oviducts. Medical intervention can sometimes help infertile couple conceive. Sometimes females can be given fertility drugs. These may cause multiple ovulations and even multiple births. There are also assisted reproductive technologies that increase the chance of pregnancy. A woman can be artificially inseminated by a donor. Sperm are placed in the vagina by a physician. In males with low sperm counts their sperm can be collected over a time so that they can artificially inseminate their partners. Often a woman is artificially inseminated by a donor who is unknown to her. Sometimes the sperm are placed directly into the uterus. During in vitro fertilization immature eggs are collected from follicles. They will mature in glassware and concentrated sperm are added. Then the embryo(s) is transferred to the uterus. Sometimes women are contracted by infertile women to have a baby for her. The sperm and egg could be contributed by the contracting parents.

The process of in vitro fertilization

F. STDs
STDs are caused by viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi or animals. Some viral STDs are genital herpes and HIV/AIDS. AIDS is the last stage of an HIV infection. The primary host of HIV is a T lymphocyte. These are the cells that would normally trigger an immune response so the immune system is greatly impaired. In the early stage the symptoms are few but the individual is highly contagious. By the last stage the T lymphocyte count is very low and the person usually contracts a normally maintainable infection. The person will die from this opportunistic infection. Genital herpes is the herpes simplex virus type-2. Its symptoms include itching, blisters, fever, pain on urination, swollen groinal lymph nodes. These blisters will rupture and leave very painful ulcers. Pregnant women with herpes should have a C section because it prevents the possibility of the baby contracting the virus in the birth canal. Genital warts are another virus. They appear as lesions on the genitals. They are linked to cancer of the genitalia. Hepatitis is a virus that infects the liver. There are six different kinds. Four of these are sexually transmitted or can be.
Chlamydia (burning and discharge), gonorrhea (pain on urination and greenish discharge) and syphilis (chancre, rash, patches on the mucous membranes, possible gummas and aneurysms) are all bacterial STDs. Depending on the person these infections can be very mild to very severe.

II. Development and Aging

A. Fertilization
When a sperm and an egg unite they form a zygote. This is the first cell of a new individual. This process is called fertilization. The tail of a sperm is a flagellum, which allows it to swim toward the egg. The mitochondria necessary for energy are found in the middle section. The head is the nucleus and is the only part that will fuse with the egg nucleus. The plasma membrane of the egg is covered by the zona pellucida. The zona pellucida is surrounded by a few layers of follicular cells called the corona radiata. Several sperm will penetrate the corona radiata during fertilization and many will attempt to penetrate the zona pellucida. Only one will enter the egg. When a sperm touches the egg the membrane depolarizes and no other sperm can bind to the membrane.

Many sperm attempt, but only one
will enter the egg.

B. Pre-embryonic/ embryonic development

The processes of human development are: cleavage (early cell dvision), growth ( the daughter cells begin increasing in size), morphogenesis (certain cells move to certain areas and shaping occurs) and differentiation (cells take on specific structures and functions.)
The first week after fertilization is pre-embryonic. The zygote divides repeatedly immediately after fertilization. It travels during the oviduct while doing so. The embryonic cells become a blastocyst which is separated by the inner and outer cell mass. The inner will become the embryo. If the inner mass splits in two than identical twins can develop. From the second week to the end of the second month embryonic development occurs. The embryo will have just implanted into the uterus wall.The outer cells which became the chorion will secrete enzymes to digest some of the endometrium. It also secretes the HCG hormone. The inner cell mass becomes the embryonic disk throughout the second week. Two other membranes form: the yolk sac and the amniotic cavity. Its fluid insulates and absorbs shock. Gastrulation is the process where the embryonic disk separates into three layers of tissue. The first, ectoderm, will become the skin epithelial linin and the nervous system. The second, mesoderm, will become the skeleton, muscles, dermis of skin, cardiovascular system, reproductive system and urinary system. The third, endoderm, will become epithelial lining. After the third week the nervous system is visible. The heart begins to form. It will pump blood by the end of the fourth week. The body stalk that is evident in the fourth will be the umbilical cord by the end of the fifth week. Limb buds appear that will later be arms and legs. From the sixth to eighth week the embryo becomes shaped more like a human being. Even though all organ systems have been developed the embryo weighs no more than an aspirin.

At three weeks this embryo has eyes and limb buds.

C. Fetal Development

The umbilical cord is the lifeline of the fetus. Its arteries carry O2 poor blood to the placenta and its veins bring nutrients and O2 rich blood to the heart of the fetus.

Between the the third and fourth months the eyes and ears are apparent. The head growth begins to slow and the rest of the increases in size. Skeleton forms as bones replace cartilage. Gender can be determined and fingernail, nipples, eyelashes and eyebrows are apparent. The heart beat can be heard at the end of the fourth month. Between the fifth and seventh months movement can be felt. The skin is coated with a protective substance, vernix caseosa. The fetus weighs about 3 pounds and is about a foot long at the end of this period. The baby could possibly survive if born at this time. Throughout the next two months the fetus continues to grow until it reaches about 7.5 pounds and is almost two feet long. Near the end of the nine months the fetus will rotate so the head is pointed toward the cervix. It is possible that it won't turn and breech birth, which is difficult and dangerous, is possible. Most likely a cesarean section would be performed to save the baby from asphyxiation. The sex of an individual is determined at fertilization. The gonads don't form, however until about the seventh week. The sex organs form according to hormone action. Some individuals with the XY (male) chromosome may become female because the Y chromosome is missing a piece. This missing piece may be present in some with XX (female) chromosomes. This causes them to have male genitalia. Those with Ambiguous Sex Determination develop as females even though they will have testes internally. This is because the plasma membrane receptors for testosterone are ineffective. About 1% of the population may have Psuedohermaphroditism. This is where an individual has testes, but appears female until puberty. At puberty male aspects become apparent as the body responds to testosterone. The clitoris will enlarge and look like a penis.

Breech birth may cause the child
to asphyxiate.

D. Pregnancy and Birth
Many changes take place in the woman's body during pregnancy. When first pregnant the woman may be nauseous and vomit. After this there might be an increase of energy. The woman will gain weight for many reasons: the breasts and uterus enlarge, There is the amniotic fluid as well as the storage of protein and fat. The woman may have lower blood pressure and retain water and sodium more. Then blood volume can increase 40%. Many will experience heartburn because smooth muscle relaxes much more. This may also cause constipation. Respiratory functions improve as the bronchial tubes relax and the uterus increases in size. The size increase causes the thoracic cavity to expand. The CO2 level drops about 20% which sends better blood to the fetus. Stress incontinence can be caused due to compression of the ureters and bladder.
Contractions happen throughout pregnancy.They are light at first but become stronger and more frequent at the end of pregnancy. Before parturition, or birth, the mucous plug will be expelled. During the first stage of birth the contractions occur so that the cervical canal disappears. Then the baby's head will open the cervix more so. The amniotic sac will rupture by this point if it had not already. In the second stage the contractions occur every 1-2 minutes and last about a minute each. The desire to push becomes greater as the baby's head enters the vagina. The baby descends head first. Then each shoulder comes. The rest follows easily. Then the umbilical cord is cut. The third stage is the after birth. The placenta is delivered. The contractions dislodge it as the uterus shrinks.

E. Development after birth

Development occurs throughout life and can be marked by four stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Gerontology is the study of aging. This is of interest because there are more older people now than ever before. The human lifespan is expected to jump to 120 years maximum. There are three major hypotheses about the cause of aging. One is the genetic origin. Some genes may express the decrease of life span. Mitochondria can perhaps produce free radicals that will render cells dysfunctional. Another idea is that the decrease in hormonal activity affects the organs and immune system. It may not be the whole system that stops functioning but that a vital tissue decreases or changes. It is also possible that much of the aging process today is do to diet and exercise as well as other health habits.
There are many effects on the body as aging occurs. skin becomes thinner and less elastic.Sagging and wrinkling occur and the people feel colder as there is less adipose in the epithelial system. The skin dries since there is less oil glands. The arteries become more rigid and less effective. There is less elasticity in the lungs and breathing becomes more difficult. Blood flow to the liver and kidneys is reduced and they are less efficient. The digestive tract becomes less efficient. Short term memory may go. However, cognitive skill can remain unchanged without complications. hearing is more difficult as the ability to hear higher pitches goes. Glaucoma may develop as fluid builds up in the eye. Bone density is lost. Sometimes weight gain occurs because metabolism slows. The external genitals of females become less pronounced. The walls of the oviducts and vagina become thinner. Some sperm production occurs to death, but the number of sperm produced decreases gradually between 50 and 90 years of age. Though all these effects have been seen, they may be due to the health habits of the older generation. We won't know until we see the next generation come of age.

Reproduction Lab

2008-04-27T15:20:00.000-07:00

There are many stages to the fetal development. Some are minute and some are monumental, depending on how one sees things. Even so, it is an ongoing process and changes are not sudden. There are landmarks that can tell you what and when certain developments happen. Here are some that I find very interesting.

1. At 4 weeks the embryo is just two layers of cells, the epiblast and the hypoblast.
2. A lot happens in just the "first month" (beginning at about 4 weeks after conception) by week six, just two weeks after the embryo was but two layers of cells, the embryo is forming vocal chords and a tongue. It already has fingers and will begin to move its arms and legs in this week. The heart is apparent by this time, too.
3. At 8 weeks the brain has begun to connect nerve paths to other parts of the body. The baby has knee joints and definitive, flexed wrists. The baby also has formed eyelids that virtually cover the eyes.
4. By 11 weeks the baby has developed bones. This week the bones will have begun to harden. Teeth buds will also have formed beneath the gums.
5. By 13 weeks the baby will have a unique set of fingerprints. It will also have the abilityto urinate, as it begins to expel amniotic fluid it has swallowed.
6. By 16 weeks the circulatory system is developed and the baby's heart is busy pumping.
7. By 18 weeks the baby has begun to move about regularly.
8. At 24 weeks the baby started to develop taste buds and what would life be like without those? Also thelungs have developed more and the bronchial tree is noticeable.
9. Because a baby's lungs are fully developed at this point, baby's born at 34 weeks have a 99% survival rate!10. In the 40th and 41st weeks the baby is as developed as it will be before birth. It is ready to make the trip into the outside world. Its skull plates have separated to make it easier for the head to go through the birth canal.

Self Evaluation

2008-04-16T02:10:00.000-07:00

Which Unit did you like best and why? Unit two was probably my favorite, but 3 was close. These are both very interesting units.My favorite parts to study have been the circulatory system and the central nervous system. The brain and the heart are fascinating.

Which Unit did you like least and why? Unit 1, simply because it wasn't as focused as the others, but I do think it was and is necessary to cover all that information quickly so the studies can become more focused.
Is there some major area of Human Biology that you feel was neglected and should be included in the course? Not that I can think of, but then again, I'm not the human biology expert.
MAJOR TOPICS
-Cells
-Genetics
-Oxygen/Blood/Immunity
-Food and Nutrition
-Nervous Function
-Movement
-Reproduction
-Human Ecology
Which two Major Topics stand out as particularly well presented?Oxygen/Blood/Immunity and Cells. Why? The topics were thorough but not overwhelmed with information.
Which two Major Topics stand out as having been confusing or difficult to understand? I can't really think of any. Why? Well, they all have been well presented so far.

Your Own Personal Functioning Limb

2008-04-13T18:15:00.000-07:00

I have constructed a model working arm with an elbow joint. I created this model using: cardboard, wire hanger, acrylic paints and paper.

The bicep and tricep are a muscle pair that work together to either bend the arm at the elbow or extend it. The origin of each is on the humerus. The insertion of the tricep is on the ulna and the insertion of the bicep is on the radius (at least on the elbow side.) The elbow itself is a hinge joint, where ligaments, cartilage and synovial cavities with fluid make the "hinge" movable. The reason it is a hinge joint is because it moves in only one direction. Motor neurons stimulate the contraction of muscles making movement possible. In the upper arm, most of these neurons come off of three nerves: the radial, the ulnar and the median nerves.

Muscle fibers are very unique cells. They contain tons of myofibrils. These segments are what makes a muscle fiber contract.

The Myofibrils are bundles of myofilaments. These strands of protein are the cause of contraction. The thick myofilaments (made of mosin protein) and the thin filaments (actin) slide past each other to make a muscle contract. This happens in the area between two "Z bands" in a myobril. This section is called a sarcomere. The filaments themselves do not shorten but the sarcomere does as the filaments slide and become more compact.

The cause of this is function is motor neurons on a muscle fiber. When the impulse for contraction reaches a axon terminal on the fiber the neurotransmitter ACh is released. These Ach molecules are carried in vesicles out of the axon terminal and into the synaptic cleft. There they are picked up by receptors on the sarcolemma (plasma membrane of a muscle fiber.)

This stimulates the myofilaments to slide which contracts the sarcomeres in a muscle fiber. As a muscle contracts, it pulls on the bone (in this case the ulna and the radius) to draw the forearm upward. This is how a joint is moved.

Muscle Fatigue

2008-04-13T14:16:00.000-07:00

# of fists in 20 seconds

NORMAL: 50

ICE WATER: 43

For this section I used a pair of muscle grips, which I would imagine was more straining than the suggested actions.
# of Squeezes in 20 seconds

1 54

2 42

3 39

4 34

5 30

6 23

7 16

8 14

9 10

10 6

ANALYSIS OF DATA:

1. What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working (contracted)?
The muscle Hardened and since it contracted it moved into a smaller area. It also bulged up, or outward.
2. What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.
It made reaction slightly slower. I was not able to contract the muscles in my hand and forearm as quickly.
3. In Figure 3, make a line graph of your results of the fatigue experiment. Be sure to fill in the values on the vertical axis.

4. What effect did fatigue have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.

The action became slower, harder and more painful.

Leech Lab

2008-04-13T13:15:00.000-07:00

This is was a very fun little project, a dissection nix the squirting organism juices. I can smell the anesthesia now!

Here is a picture of the oscillator saying, "You've poked him where he feels it, Billy!"
Here is the dyed nerve cell under Ultra Violet:

1.An electrode measures a nerve impulse
2.Leeches are a great specimen for this experiment, because it is very simple. Simple organisms can give us clues as to how more complex systems operate. No one will be to sad at the loss of a leech, save for the crazy (but caring) people at PETA, and can you really trust people who protest wearing only cellophane? (JUST KIDDING!!, for all you PETA people, more power to you.)
3. Sensory neurons detect stimulus whether internally or externally, these are the neurons that "sense." Motor neurons are the reaction sent by the brain or other interneurons as a reply to the sensory impulse.
4. I think leeches experience pain (not in the sense that his girlfriend left him, that's not even why she sucks.hahaha) Pain is simply impulses sent from chemoreceptors to tell the body of damage done.
5. The two most interesting things about this lab were the uses of the probe for oscillation reception and UV dying. It was very interesting, something that would be fun to do for real someday.
6. Off of the bat it was confusing that they were identifying cells that were specific to leeches that weren't explained.

From Concept to Practice

2008-04-11T19:37:00.000-07:00

We have all seen the commercials (and me since I was quite young,) "Play a game." "Real Reality." "30 minutes a day." There have been and continue to be a number of adds that target children (as our future) to get fit through just plain "getting out." What was the result? Kids were commanded by less-than-perfect physical role models, called parents to "get out." Or the parents would drive them to the park with chips and soda as a snack.
The concept is great, and to some extent it works, but the practice is flawed. Our society is not built to promote physical fitness. It has been organized around convenience and, of course, monetary gain. Our drive-through society clearly caters to a slothful approach to bodily maintenance.
There are, certainly, other environments that do nurture a physical mindset. When I lived on Kauai, there was certainly a very physical environment. Though there were common examples of so-called "anti-physical" catering, like highways and McDonald's the atmosphere was different. Sidewalks were everywhere. The county had a project to build a side walk along the entire eastern coastline. It was a beautiful ride...or walk. There were a lot of hiking trails and none were "no bikes" trails, which is very important to someone like me. Now, of course, pacific islands are a great place to find less common activities, like diving, sea-kayaking and surfing, but hiking, swimming, running and cycling/mountain biking can be done most anywhere.
The problem is in the profit. The people who live in places like Hawaii, go there not just because it is beautiful but they enjoy the outdoor activities provided there. There is little to no immediate profit in converting an enviroment to pro-physical. This is what prevents such a conscious effort to change a population's plans to enhance a fit lifestyle. I think the eventual benefits would be great, but hardly are economic issues looked at for the long-term benefit.

Unit Three: Compendium II

2008-04-09T19:07:00.000-07:00

I. Skeletal System

A. Overview

B. Bone: Growth and Repair

C. Axial Skeleton

D. Appendicular Skeleton

E. Articulations.

II. Muscular System

A. Overview

B. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contraction

C. Whole Muscle Contraction

D. Muscular Disotrophy

E. Homeostasis

I. Skeletal System

A. Overview

The skeletal system consists of bone, cartilage and connective tissue in the ligaments and joints. Its functions are body support, protection, blood cell production, mineral and fat storage and assists in flexible movement. The shaft of a long bone is the diaphysis. The medullary cavity of the diaphysis is filled with yellow bone marrow. This marrow stores fat. The bone fans on the end into the epiphysis. This bone is spongy and contains red bone marrow, which makes blood cells. The bone is covered in periosteum, which contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. This continues right into ligaments and tendons. Compact bone is made of tube-like sections called osteons. Osteocytes are bone cells of the osteon the lie in lacunae (circular chambers around a canal, for vessels and nerves.)Osteocytes nearest the center of the osteon exchange nutrients and wastes with blood vcssels. Spongy bone lies within and looks less organized than compact bone, but its brace-like structure is for strength. Its spaces are filled with red bone marrow. Cartilage is a flexible tissue, not as strong as bone. It has many collagenous and elastic fibers. Cartilage contains no nerves which is ideal for the stress placed on it from flexible movement. It heals slowly, though, as it has no blood vessels. The three types of cartilage are: hyaline (firm fairly flexible), fibrocartilage (stronger than hyaline, found in disks between vertabrae.), elastic cartilage is the most flexible. Ligaments and tendons are made up of fibrous connective tissue. They connect bone to bone and muscle to bone.

B. Bone: growth and repair

Boes first appear at six weeks in an embryo . They continue to grow until as late as age 25. They change shape and size and strength to deal with stress. Bones can repair when fractured. Some different types of bone cells are: osteoblasts (bone forming cells), osteocytes (maintain structure), osteoclasts (breakdown bone.) Ossification is the formation of cone. The two types of ossification are: intramembranous and endochondral. Flat bones, like the skull, are results of intramembranous ossification which develops bone between sheets of fibrous connective tissue. Endochondral ossification happens in most bones of the body where cartilag models are replaced by bone construction. THe cartilage model literally becomes the bone!. The epiphyseal plates close at about age 20 which ends bone legth growth. Vitamin D is vital to bone growth and strength in that it plays a great role in calcuim absorbtion. As much as 18% of bone is recycled each year and renewed in bone remodeling. This helps keep bones strong. Bones are the storage sight for calcium and regulates the amount of calcium in the blood. Two hormones are integral to this process: parathyroid and calcitonin. Osteoperosis is a condition in which osteoclasts are more active than osteoblasts causing bone mass decrease. Bone repair is very important to functioning structure. If a break occurs bood will clot in the break. Thn fibrocartilage will form in the break.Then osteoblasts convert the fibrocartilaginous callus into a bony callus. It is lastly filled in with compact bone and repair is complete.

Normally, a fracture like this will heal through

bone remodeling.

C. Axial skeleton

The axial skeleton refers to the skull, hyoid, vetebral column and rib cage. The skull is the cranium and facial bones. The cranium protects the brain. It is actually eight bones fused together. The sphenoid bone extends across the floor of the cranium. It completes the sides of the cranium and formsthe eye sockets. The ethmoid bone forms the nasal septum. The facial bones are: the mandible, maxillae, zygomatic and nasal. The Hyoid bone is the only bone that does not articulate with other bones. It is attatched to the larynx and anchors the tongue. The vertebral column contains 33 vertebrae (the spine.)There are five types of vertebrae (from the top down): cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum and coccyx. There are fibrocartilagous disks called intervertebral disks that absorb shock and protect the vertebrae. The rib cage is protective and flexible. It is made up of the ribs and the sternum.

skeleton 1 shows the axial skeleton

while skeleton 2 shows the appendicular

skeleton.

D. Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton makes up every other bone of the body. There are the pectoral girdles on either side that make up the shoulder. They contain the scapulas and the clavicle. The muscles of the arm and chest attach to the scapula. The rotator cup is made of tendons connecting the scapula to the humerus. It is the single long bone of the upper arm. This connects at the elbow to the radius and the ulna. The hand has many bones for increased flexibility. There are the carpal bones, the metacarpal bones and the phalanges. At the waste is the pelvic girdle. The pelvis is made up of two heavy coxal bones, the ilium, the pubis, and the ischium. This connects at a joint, to the femur: the single long bone of the upper leg. This is connected to the tibia and fibula by the patella (kneecap) and ligaments and tendons. There are many bones in the feet, like the hands, for flexibility. The ankle area is made of tarsals then there are five metatarsals and then phpalanges in the toes.

E. Articulations

Bones join at the joints. There are three types of joints: fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial. Fibrous joints are virtually immovable. Cartilaginous joints are slightly movable. Synovial joints are freely movable. The synovial joints are joint cavities that are filled with synovial fluid. Bursae are sacs of this fluid that lubricate bones and overlapping muscle and ease friction. Then areas of hyaline cartilage fill in a C-shaped area for shock absorbtion. The synovial joints in the shoulders and hips are ball joints and permit movement in any direction. Th elbows and knees are hinge joints and only allow single-directional movement.

The joints are capable of impressive articulations.

II. Muscular System

A. Overview

All muscles contract and this causes movement. There are three types of muscle tissue: smoothe, cardiac and skeletal. These are made of muscle fibers. Smooth muscle fibers have a spindle shape. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs which causes the contractions in them. These tend to contract without conscious control. Cardiac muscle has inuncleated fibers that are striated and is found in the heart wall. It's formation facillitates quick contractions throughout the heart wall. Cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily. Skeletal muscles have many functions. It supports the body. It makes the skeleton move. They maintain body temperature. The contractions of skeletal muscles help move blood and lymph through their respective vessels. Skeletal muscles also help protect internal organs. Skeletal muscles are made of fascicles. Fascicles are covered with fascia which connects muscles to tendons. When a skeletal muscle contracts its tendons pull on the bone to move it. It takes groups of muscles to move a particular area, but one muscle will take the bulk of the movement. Since muscles work in pairs one must reflex as one contracts in order for the bone to move. Skeletal muscles are named according to one of these seven factors: size, shape, location, direction of fibers, attachment, number of attachments and/or action.

B. Skeletal muscle fiber contractions

The striations in skeletal muscles is dues to the arrangement of myofilaments in the muscle fiber. There are different names for kthe cellular components of muscle fiber. THe plasma membrane is called the sarcolemma, the sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm. Muscle fiber contains sarcoplasmic reticulum. The sarcolemma forms transvers (T) tubules that dip into that make contact with the sarcoplamic reticulum. These sights of contact store calcium which is vital to muscle contraction. The myofibrils are the contracting parts of the muscle fibers. Other organelles are found between the myofibrils. Glycogen in the sarcoplasmacts as stored energy for contraction. Myofibrils are cylindrical. Units that make up the are sarcomeres. There are two types of protein in the myofibrils called myosin and actin. There are thick and thin myofilaments. The thick filaments are made of hundreds of myosin molecules. Thin filaments are made mostly of actin and there are also tropomyosin and troponin proteins in them. As an impulse travels down a T tubules, calcium is released. This causes the myofilaments to shorten, thereby contracting the muscle. The sliding of thin filaments past the thick filament is called the sliding filament model. Motor neurons attached to one or a few muscle fibers stimulate contractions by releasing ACh into the synaptic vesicles. Botox blocks the release of ACh into the symaptic cleft. This can be used to stop wrinkling. Rigor mortis probably sets in because ACh is not inhibited from flowing into the muscles.

C. Whole Muscle Contraction

A motor unit is the combination of the nerve axon as well as all the muscle fibers it stimulates. A muscle twitch is caused by infrequent electrical impulses. The three periods of this are the latent (between relaxation and contraction), contraction and relaxation. When this occurs rapidly without relaxation, the energy is dpleted in a state called tetanus, not to be confused with the infection, tetanus. THe four possible energy sources of contraction are: muscle triglycerides, plasma fatty acids, blood glucose and muscle glyfogen. Which one is used depends of the type of exercise and its intensity. Muscle fibers metabolize aerobically and anaerobically. Fast twitch muscle fibers use the anaerobic methods of producing ATP. They can fatigue very quicly because they dpend on lactate. Slow twitch fibers have more endurance. They are good for running, biking, jogging and swimming. They do not fatigue easilly because they have a more abundant fuel supply.

Cycling uses slow-twitch fibers.

D. Muscular disorders

There are many different muscular conditions. Spasms are involuntary muscle contraction. When this happens in multiple muscles it is called a convulsion. Cramps are strong spasms. Facial tics are spasms in the face that can be controlled with great effort. Strain is a stretching or tearing of the muscle. Sprains are twisting of joints that swell the muscle and the ligaments, tendons, nerves and blood vessels. Tendinitis is an inflamed tendon that does not glide properly. Myalgia is a condition of achy muscles. Fibromyalgia refers to a chronic condition where muscles are sore, stiff and tender. It may be due to an infection. Muscular dystrophy refers to a number of disorders in which the muscles weaken and degenerate. A lack of the protein dystrophin causes the Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a common type. Myasthenia gravis is a disease in which muscle contraction is impared because the body produces antibodies that mistakenly destroy ACh receptors. Lou Gehrig's disease is characterized by the loss of all muscle related abilities, though mental function stays intact.

Mike Neufeldt suffers from Muscular Dystrophy.

E. Homeostasis

Movements is integral to homeostasis. The skeletal and muscular systems work together for movement. Movement helps us respond to changes in the environment. Muscle contraction at the mouth allows us to mechanically breakdown food. Peristasis moves food through the digestive system. Muscle movement is important to breathing and venous return for blood circulation. Bones and muscles work together. They both protect organs. Bones release calcium which is used by muscles. Blood cells are made in the bone marrow, while muscles aid in body temperature homeostasis.

Unit III: Compendium 1

2008-04-07T19:30:00.000-07:00

I. The Nervous System

A. Overview

B. Central Nervous system

C. Limbic System

D. Peripheral System

E. Drug Abuse

II. Senses

A. Sensory Receptors

B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors

C. Taste and Smell

D. Vision

E. Hearing

F. Equilibrium

I. The Nervous System

A. Overview

There are two major parts of the nervous system: the central nervous system and t he peripheral system. The central nervous system encompasses the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral consists of nerves. Those these systems are labeled separately, they work together as one system. The functions of the nervous system are: receiving sensory input, integrates the input and generates reactions through motor response. Nervous tissue is made up of nuerons which send nerve impulses to the different parts of the system. Neuroglia support the neurons.
There are three different types of neurons. Sensory neurons take impulses from receptors to the central nervous system (CNS). Interneurons, in the CNS, take in all the impulses from sensory neurons and other internuerons. Then motor neurons take a reactionary impulse to an effector, which can be muscles or glands. Neurons have three parts: the cell body, dendrites and an axon. Axons generate impulses while dendrites receive them. Myelin sheaths are a protective lipid-containing substance that are found around some axons. These protect and help in the regeneration of damaged axons.
Nervous information is conveyed in nerve impulses. Measuring these is done using a voltmeter on an axon. When an impulse is not being conducted the voltmeter reads the resting potential of an axon. The charge of the inside of the neuron is more negative than positive at this point. The action potential is the measurement of a neuron when an impulse is being conducted. The change of polarity is very quick. Conduction in myelinated axons is much quicker than in axons without myelin during an impulse. Action potential is always the same in an axon. Intensity depends on how many impulses are fired, because the action potential is the same every time. After an impulse is conducted the sodium gates on an impulse stay shut, called the refractory period, ensuring that the impulse travels in one direction and never backward.
The synapse is the small space between a sending axon and the receiving neuron. The transmission must be carried out by neurotransmitters. These molecules are release when an impulse reaches the axon terminal at the end of an axon. They diffuse through the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the receiving neuron or dendrite. Neurotransmitters are then either reabsorbed or destroyed. A neuron then receives either an excitatory or an inhibitory signal. These signals tell a neuron whether to move toward active potential or to move from it.

B. The central nervous system

Sensory information is received and motor response is conducted in the CNS. The brain and the spinal cord make up the CNS. They are both protected my bone and by membrane called meninges. Cerebrospinal fluid fills in the membrane which protects the CNS. There are four ventricles that hold cerebrospinal fluid in the brain. Excesses fluid drains into the cardiovascular system. There are two types of nervous tissue in the CNS. Gray matter is made up of nonmyelinated fibers. Whiter matter is made up of myelinated axons running in tracts.
The spinal cord starts at the base of the brain and runs through the vertebrae. The spinal cord is made up of a central canal, gray matter and white matter. The central canal has cerebrospinal fluid. Sensory and motor neurons are found somewhat in the the gray matter. The white matter contains ascending tracts to the brain and descending tracts from the brain. The spinal cord transmits information between the brain and the peripheral system. Sensory messages are sent to the brain from receptors to the brain. These can be blocked by endorphins. Reflex actions are caused as motor neurons send a response after being stimulated by interneurons who have processed an impulse from sensory neurons.
The brain contains four major parts: the cerebrum, the diencephalon, the cerebellum and the brain stem. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. There are two hemispheres of the cerebrum. Sulci are shallow grooves that divide the hemisphere into lobes. The lobes are: the frontal, the parietal, the occipital and the temporal. each lobe has different functional control. The cerebral cortex is a thin, dense layer that covers the lobes. It contains the functions of sensation, voluntary movement, and conscious thought. Most motor sensory is contained within the frontal lobe. Sensory information from the skin and muscles goes to the parietal lobe. Vision is processed in the occipital lobe. Hearing is processed in the temporal lobe.
Homeostasis is in part maintained by the hypothalamus in the diencephalon. It regulates things like sleep, hunger, thirst, body temperature and water balance. The thalamus first receives all sensory input except for smell. It integrates the input and then sends it out to the correct area of the brain. The cerebellum is found directly below the occipital lobe. The cerebellum receives sensory input and motor output from the cerebral cortex. It then sends motor impulses to skeletal muscles. It maintains posture in balance in one regard. The brain stem contains the midbrain, the pons and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain receives input from the tracts and also sends out reflexes. The pons contains axons that bridge the cerebellum and the rest of the CNS. It also works in conjunction with the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata contains many reflex centers for involuntary actions, such as breathing and heartbeat.

The central nervous system consists of the brain

and spinal cord.

C. Limbic system
The limbic system contains much including primitive emotion and higher mental function. It blends and integrates these systems. The hippocampus, contained in the limbic system is thought to be very much integral to the learning process. It determines which information should be stored as memory and how to encode it. It most likely communicates with the frontal lobe. Memory is one function of learning. There are different types of learning. Short term memory is associated with the prefrontal area of the brain. Long term memory is a mixture of semantic memory and episodic memory. This is why we easily associate a phone number with a person, place and/or event. Skill memory is the memory of motor ability. Long term memory is apparently stored throughout the cerebral cortex. It appears as though the different hemispheres process the same information differently. Whereas it was believed that the left side of the brain was more rational and logical and the right was more creative and intuitive, it is now believed that the left side is more global and the right side is more specific.

A view of the deep-lying limbic system.

D. Peripheral System

The peripheral system(PNS) contains all the nerves. All nerves take impulses to and from the CNS. Nerves that come from the brain are cranial and those from the spinal cord are spinal. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in humans. Cranial nerves are, for the most part, used for the face, head and neck. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves on either side of the spine. All spinal nerves are "mixed" in that they have sensory and motor fibers. The somatic system is a division of the PNS that tends to the skeletal system, skin and tendons. This system contains the receptors that sense outer stimulus. Reflexes are automatic responses to certain stimuli. When reflexes occur much is involved. Outer stimulus is received by a receptor. The sensory neuron sends the information to interneurons in the spinal cord. These send a response impulse through motor neurons that react quickly. The interneurons also send an impulse to the brain. So the reflex is automatic, but also conducts brain activity. The pain is only felt after the brain processes the impulses. The autonomic system is the other major division of the PNS> This controls smooth muscles, breathing and glands. There are two types of autonomic division: sympathetic (urgent) and parasympathetic (relaxed.)

E. Drug Abuse

Drugs, whether natural or synthetic affect the nervous system to either increase the likelihood of excitation (stimulants) or decrease the likelihood of excitation (depressants) of neurons. Drugs artificially stimulate the reward circuit (collection of neurons that promote healthy pleasurable activities, like eating.) Drug abuse is characterized by a physical or psychological dependence and use that is potentially harmful. Alcohol is the most readily available and socially acceptable drug. It can be very harmful when abused. It causes damage to the liver and extensive damage to the brain. It can cause death or coma when used heavily at one time. Nicotine is also highly accepted. Addiction rate in American smokers is about 70%. Cocaine is highly addictive and is pleasurable to users because it keeps dopamine in "rotation" in the system without reabsorbing it quickly. It is a very dangerous drug with many side effects. Methamphetamine works similarly to cocaine in the way that it binds to dopamine keeping it in the system longer. Its characteristics as well as its side effects are incredibly dangerous. Heroin is a depressant that is incredibly strong. It is pleasurable to users because it is converted to morphine which blocks pain and stimulates the reward circuit. It is highly addictive and its intravenous popularity can lead to hepatitis, HIV and bacterial infection. Marijuana is the most commonly used illegal drug. Its mild euphoria and depressant affects make it very popular. It affects the areas of the brain that maintain memory, balance, coordination and perception.Though not physically addictive, frequent use can make one psychologically dependant.

The popularity of "shooting up" (intravenous injection)

has caused many cases of Hepatitis and HIV in heroin users.

II. Senses

A. Sensory receptors

Dendrites that detect specific stimuli are called sensory receptors. When they detect outer sensations they are called exteroceptors. When they detect inner changes they are called interoceptors. Interoceptors are integral to homeostasis. Exteroceptors are integral to detecting environmental changes. Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals nearby. These can be either interoceptors or exteroceptors. Pain receptors, which are protective, sense chemicals that have been released by damaged tissue, to alert the body to damage. Photoreceptors respond to light giving us a sense of vision. Mechanoreceptors respond to pressure. This gives us hearing as well as equilibrium. Thermoreceptors respond to changes of temperature respectively. Sensation is the perception of stimuli. Some sensory receptors are just nerve endings. Others contain specialized cells. Still others have receptor proteins that reacts to chemicals. Perception of stimuli happens in the cerebral cortex. No sensation is felt until the impulse has made it to the cerebral cortex. Integration, however, occurs in sensory receptors. This can cause sensory adaptation, which can cause a stimuli to either be ignored or filtered out.

B. Proprioceptors and cutaneous receptors

The three types of receptors found in the muscles, joints, tendons, skin and some internal organs. These are the proprioreceptors, cutaneous receptors and pain receptors. As reflexive mechanoreceptors, proprioreceptors help maintain poster and balance. They sense the amount of tension in a muscle and the stretch of tendons to pinpoint the location of a limb. Cutaneous receptors are many different types of receptors in the skin that determine touch, size, temperature and texture of an objects.Meissner corpuscles, Merkel disks and root hair plexuses are the "touch sensitive." Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endings are pressure sensitive. There are are many pain receptors, or nociceptors that detect chemical release at the sight of damage.

meissner corpuscles.

C. Taste and Smell

Taste and smell are chemical senses. They respond to molecules in the food we eat as well as those in the air. Olfactory cells (smell) act from a distance and taste cells act directly. In humans taste buds are found on the tongue, the hard palate, the pharynx and the epiglottis. Taste buds open at a taste pore. These lead to supporting cells which eventually lead down into the sensory nerve. They are then carried to the gustatory cortex where they are interpereted. 80-90% of what is perceived as taste is actually smell. which is sensed by olfactory cells. Certain odor molecules bind to certain smell receptors which is what determines the interpretation of the smell. Smell is very connected to the limbic system and can, therefore, trigger memory.

an illustration of a taste bud.

D. Vision

There is a very complex process to sight that involves the brain and the eye. There are three layers to the eye: the sclera, the choroid, and the retina. The cornea is the only transparent part of the sclera, the rest is fiberous and white. The iris is found at the front of the choroid. This determines the size of the pupil, which is the center of the iris and allows in light for vision process. The ciliary body of the choroid determines the shape of the lense for distance of viewing. The retina contains photo receptors. There are two types: rod and cone. Rods are very sensitive to light but only perceive black and white. Cones perceive colors but need much more light and that is why it is much easier to detect color the more light there is. The optic nerve runs from the retina to the visual cortex. An image is focused, through the lens, on the retina. Photoreceptors in the retina recieve light and break down the refraction chemically. The signals are passed to ganglion cells and then to the optic nerve where they are carried to the optic chiasma. The image is crossed and split. Then it goes on to be processed in the visual cortex. Color blindness and distance vision are the most common eye problems.

E. Hearing

The inner ear has to sensory jobs: balance and hearing. There are three parts to the ear. The outer ear contains the pinna and the auditory canal. The middle ear contains the tympanic membrane (eardrum) It ends at a bony wall with two small openings called the oval and round windows. It also contains the auditory tube, which runs to the nasopharynx. This is mimportant to air balance and equilibrium. The inner ear is filled with fluid. There are three areas: the semicircular canals, the vestibule and the cochlea. The first two are important to equilibrium and the last to hearing. When sound waves hit the tympanic membrane it vibrates. The pressure is multiplied by the maleus and sent to the stapes. The pressure strikes the oval window. This makes the vibration pressure to pass into the fluid in the inner ear. This stimulates the cochlear nerve which sends the signal to the auditory cortex and is interpreted as sound. Different parts of the nerve are sensitive to different frequencies. Volume is determined by the amount of pressure wsound waves place upon the inner fluid.

The inner ear senses hearing and contributes to equilibrium.

F. Equilibrium

Also within the ear are the parts that maintain equilibrium. The vestibular nerve carries pressure signals from the semicircular canals, saccule and utricle to the brain stem and cerebellum. The mechanoreceptors in the semicircular canals are responsible for detecting rotational movement. The reaction of the cupula on the end of vestibular nerve sends a signal of pressure that tells position. Dizziness occurs when the cupula gets used to rotational movement and when the movement stops the cupula slowly comes back to normal throwing off our true rotational balance. Mechanoreceptors in the utricle and saccule dtect movement in the horizontal/vertical planes. These membranous sacs contain little hair cells which are stimulated by the movement of the otolithic membrane they are suspended in. This gel moves with the movement of the head. Impulses are increased or decreased dpending on the direction of the flow. When this data reaches the brain it determine the correct motor output for the gravitational positioning.

No Easy Answer: What to Eat

2008-03-22T21:42:00.000-07:00

Jesus once said, "It is not what goes into the mouth of a man that defiles him, but what comes out of his mouth." (Matthew 15:11) Naturally I would have to take this quite out of context to argue with him. We are at an interesting time in history. Food is available for anyone patient enough to stand in front of the microwave for one minute. It's convenience base is painfully obvious in today's drive-through prominence. Giant fruits abound at the supermarket, fruit whose size would have been rare in fairly rich soil. An entree at a restaurant is really gonna cost you, but then again you are going to get at least twice as much food as you actually need.
The price paid by such wonders of modern convenience are plenty and severe. Obesity runs rampant. Heart disease is common place. There is little market for small time farmers. We don't really have any idea where our food comes from. Colon cancer is much more prominent than it used to be.
There is a lot in this topic to be provided in one essay. This is certainly a good idea for a more formal essay, because there is so much material to cover. The fact is even the "evil" side of fast food culture has its benefits in today's society. There is a heavy emphasis on schedules and jam-packed days in our culture today. While European countries, like Spain, maintain an emphasis on a large, slow prepared and slowly consumed dinner, most of the rest of the world has said goodbye to this practice. There is no time in today's culture for this. Coincidently, as of October 2007, Spain was the "poorest" 1st world country. I certainly couldn't blame this on the nation's dinner habits, but it is something to consider.
Fast food is convenient in our demanding culture. If there were no drive-through windows, most people would starve, because there is hardly any time to eat lunch, or prepare it in advance in a daily work schedule. With the high percentage of both single, working parents and families where both parents work, its easy to see why there is little time for food prep. One could spend more time cooking, but then life might become: wake, work, eat and sleep. It's a very depressing cycle to live for.
As stated above, however, its affects have been devastating. Advances in science and technology have led to excessive use of chemicals for shelf life and taste. These things are not normal for the body to ingest and some affects have been seen. Others are yet to be known.
Another thing to consider is the economic motive for todays fast foods, frozen foods and GMOs. Most companies who produce these products are rather large companies. Their motive has not necessarily been health, but profit. These foods can be produced cheaply and have a quick turnover. This equals big bucks. Their foods can be sold for much cheaper than whole foods and organic foods which are mainly produced by smaller farms and local growers. This harms the expansion of small growers and can even move them out of business.
There has been a refreshing, renewed interest in whole and organic foods. It seems bigger now than it did even five years ago and much more than it did ten years ago. This demand has, thankfully, put the pressure on big foods to produce more natural and organic products. Even so these products are cheaper than the small growers. If big food dominates the organic and natural food market then they make the rules. It seems it may become a cycle. With less small competition the big companies may bring back cheap production methods and products until demands call for a change again.
I think it is better to never find out the effects of growth hormones than to find out they are no good. There is a natural order. The earth, as we know it (naturally) has brought us some wonderful food. Sure, we as humans do what we can to improve it, but I am of the opinion that a clever combination of "Nature's choicest products," is a safer, healthier, more economically balanced method of eating than to chemically alter the food we eat.

Unit II Lab Project: Light My [metabolic] Fire

2008-03-22T16:49:00.000-07:00

I am a person with an average blood pressure. I don't breathe like a rabbit. (except after heavy running, I'm slightly asthmatic) I think my relatively laid back nature contributes to this. My girlfriend's father has high blood pressure. We measured his blood pressure, once, after an argument between and his twin daughters and it was soaring at somewhere around 146/85. ( and wouldn't twin 17 year-olds do that to anyone?) This was a couple of years ago, and I never thought of how stress affected blood pressure and metabolism before that. I didn't really give it much thought afterward until the recent science unit. Then I started to wonder how different activities, environments and substances affect metabolism. (don't worry, when I say substances Iam referring to foods and such.)

When taking my rates, I was fortunate enough to live with the former nursing teacher of Prescott High School, Bill King. Though, the photo below shows me taking my own blood pressure, it is false. I had him measure it for me. I did however measure my own heart rate via the stethoscope shown. The pictures are low quality, I know, but they make the point.

Anyway, when taking my base rates, I simply sat on a chair (once) and my bed (twice). The resulting values are below.

Baseline
Pulse................................ Mean
52 55 58 52 52............... 53.8
Resp
44 50 38 38 40............... 42
Systolic
122 120 123 120 120..... 121
Diastolic
70 68 68 70 70................ 69.2

From here I chose three activities to do to see what the resulting metabolism changes would be from each. The activities chosen were: 1. sit upside down for one minute 2. read for five minutes 3. work on painting a portrait for 10 minutes
For the first, sitting upside down for a minute at a time, I hypothesize that my heart will go up, because the body will work harder to perform the normal function. The reason I believe so, is that, though being upside down is strangely relaxing, it is not normal for the body and has to work against the way it is naturally tuned. Naturally my reasoning cannot be tested here, but results on metabolism can be, which will at least give me a frame of whether my idea can have merit or not.
For the second, reading for five minutes at a time, I hypothesize that my metabolism will stay relatively similar if not going up slightly. I believe so, because, though mentally I will be stimulated, it is not a physically stressing process.
For the third, painting for ten minutes at a time, I hypothesize that my metabolism will rise. I will see a significant change in blood pressure and a slight change in breathing. The reason is because painting both excites me and makes me anxious. The anxiety is not intense, but coupled with the excitement I think it will make a change in metabolic rates.

For my first activity I sat down upside down on my couch for a minute at a time. I did this like so:

I simply measure the time with a regular watch and then immediately took my respiratory rate, blood pressure and heart rate. I interchanged the order in which I took them to see if it would make a difference whether I took breathing first or breathing last, for example.

For my second activity, reading a book for five minutes at a time, I sat in a folding chair and read, like so:
I like to read a lot. Many of the books I read have view points that differ greatly from my own. For the purpose of keeping relaxed, I read a personally agreeable book. I read for in five minute increments and took my rates, switching the order of each as I did in the first activity.

For my third activity I stood and painted on a portrait that I have been working on for ten minutes at a time. I, of course, did this like so:

Though this picture looks set up, I am really working in it, haha. I just worked in ten minute units and followed the same process as I did in the first two for gathering the information.

The information was as follows:

Activity 1
Pulse....................Mean
72 80 78............. 76.7
Resp
43 44 48 .............45
Systolic
130 132 130....... 130.7
Diastolic
78 80 80............. 79.3
Activity 2
Pulse
56 56 58............. 56.7
Resp
22 23 20............. 21.7
Systolic
125 125 125........ 125
Diastolic
72 78 78............... 76
Activity 3
Pulse
50 52 50............. 50.7
Resp
35 30 32............. 32.3
Systolic
130 130 130...... 130
Diastolic
75 80 78 .............77.7

Each of the metabolic rates were graphed. The activities were compared in four different graphs, one for each rate. These are the graphs:

Here we can see consistencies and deviations from my hypotheses. The idea that metabolic rates would raise for activities one and three were, for the most part, true. This was even true of the hypothesis for activity, they did raise slightly. However, I was apparently wrong in my hypothesis about rising pulse from painting. My heart rate was strangely slow, especially considering the significant rise in all other areas. My pulse after painting was even slower than my baseline pulse. This is very odd, indeed.

I believe there were problematic methods, devices and environments in this lab. First of all, I did not use an electronic pressure cuff. Though it was professional equipment, used by a professional, Mr. King admitted that it hadn't been used in a while and there may have been pressure issues. Secondly, there was no way to measure all four rates at once. The best remedy I could come up with was to alternate in which order I measured them. There is no way to assure that these results were completely accurate. Lastly, I listened to music when I painted. I didn't really think about it until afterward, but I now realize that changing the setting with something like music or visuals may have an effect on the metabolic rates.

It seems to me that all forms of stimulation affect the physiology of the circulatory and respiratory systems. Whether physical of mental, stimulation will boost the metabolic rates. Physical changes seem to catalyze more so than mental stimulation. The heart gets to pumping to get more oxygen to any stimulated part of the body: legs, brain, hands, etc. This was a very fun and interesting lab. I should try the experiments again, if for no other reason than to sit upside down again, with warrant!

What Goes In Might Spread Out!: A Day of Food

2008-03-19T22:14:00.000-07:00

Today was a strange day to track food intake, but it's the only day I lived in the past 22 hours, so it's what I've got to work with.

The food calculator had strange combinations and limited options so I got as close as I could with the selections. I started my day with a bagel with sun dried tomato and herb cream cheese. For lunch I had pot roast with mashed potatoes. I had some baby carrots and a few pita chips with hummus as a snack. For dinner I ate a hot dog with no bun and some carrots and cherry tomatoes (couldn't be found on the calorie calc.) That was and will be it, since it somehow got to be 10:21 PM. Here is the calculator's version of what I had:
On a 2000 calorie diet this states that I consumed 138% of my daily fat allowance. I don't think that was true, because the hot dog I ate, first of all, was an all turkey frank. Next, the serving of Pot Roast I had was not quite as large as the one above. Lastly, the pita and hummus in the menu is a plate (huge!) not at all what I ate for a snack. Even so, I'm sure I was pretty close to my total fat allowance.

This is not a terrible diet, but a strange one for me. I wouldn't normally eat pot roast for lunch and a single hot dog for dinner.

If I were to have eaten ideally today, It would have probably gone like this: granola and yogurt for breakfast. Orange for a snack. Turkey sandwich for lunch (whole wheat bread one slice Swiss cheese, NO MAYO because I don't like it, not for health. Plenty of plain mustard, tomato, spinach.) apple and baby carrots for a snack. And, not because I am disciplined but because the cook makes us buy healthy, something light with lots of greens and probably grilled chicken.
I do not always eat well. There are just those days when the chips overtake me, or I just gotta get a soft serve cone from DQ. I try not to let it happen often.

Nutritional tracking is very helpful and I would highly recommend it to people who know they need a serious change in their diets. I used to log everything religiously, especially when I was trying to gain 10 lbs of muscle and get down to 11% body fat. I got tired of it, though and now I am back to eating, mostly, what I have already charted as safe to maintain a good weight and have well-balanced nutrition. If DQ keeps calling, I may have to start again!

Compendium II Unit II

2008-03-17T15:37:00.000-07:00

I. Digestion and Nutrition

A. Overview

B. Take Me to the Factory: Digestion, Part I

C. Stomach and Small Intestine

D. Pancreas, Liver, Gallbladder and Their Juices

E. Out With It!

F. Nutrition and Weight Control

I. Digestion

A. Overview
All the organs of the digestive system are found in the gastrointestinal tract (GI): a very long tube running through the body. Digestion is the way the body breaks down macromolecules in food into basic molecules for absorption and use by cells. The five main processes of digestion are: ingestion(intake of food through the mouth), digestion (the breakdown of food from, mechanical to chemical, for nutrients), movement (transport from organ to organ to expulsion.), absorption (broken down unit molecules pass through the GI tract then into the bloodstream.) and elimination (removal of undigested waste.)
The GI tract has four layers. The inside space is called lumen. The first layer is the mucosa. It produces mucus that protect the wall from enzymes. It can secrete enzymes or recieve them from other enzyme-secreting organs. The second layer is the submucosa. This layer is made of loose tissue containing blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves. It also contains lymph nodules that protect from infection. The third layer is the muscularis. It contains two layers of muscle. The first layer circles the tract and the second lies the same way as the tract. These muscles contract to move food through the GI. The fourth layer is the serosa. The serosa is also part of the lining of the abdominal cavity.

The Digestive system. A: mouth, B: esophagus, C: stomach
D: small intestine, E: large intestine.

B. Take me to the factory: digestion, part I
The mouth, pharynx and esophagus are the first section of digestion in the first part of the GI tract. The mouth receives food. It begins mechanical and chemical digestion. The roof of the mouth separates the nasal and oral cavities. The front part is the hard palate. The back is the soft palate. There are three pairs of salivary glands that send saliva to the mouth. The openings of the salivary ducts are on either side of the mouth by the molars, underneath the tongue and on the floor of the oral cavity. Saliva contains mucus, water, bicarbonate and the enzyme, salivary amylase.
Teeth are used in mechanical digestion to break down food. there are 32 teeth in the adult mouth. The crown of the tooth covers the dentin and pulp in a very hard bone-like material called enamel. The tongue is covered with a mucous membrane. In this are the taste buds, for sensing taste. The tongue moves food around for the teeth to chew and lumps food into a mass then pushes it toward the pharynx.
The pharynx is a cavity that contains both food and air passages. The esophagus is found here. Swallowing is voluntary from the mouth to the pharynx. However, from the pharynx down the process is reflexive. The soft palate closes of the nasal cavity. The The larynx rises which causes the glottis to block of the epiglottis (so food does not go down the air passage.) Peristalsis is a contracting that pushes food along the esophagus and through the digestive tract. Sphincters are muscles around digestive tubes that act as valves that keep food and acid down.

C. Stomach and small intestine

Continuing through the GI we come to the stomach. It is located beneath the diaphragm on the left side of the body. Thick-walled organ stores food, begins the digestion of protein and controls the flow of the now semi-fluid chyme into the small intestine. The stomach does not absorb food. The muscularis around the stomach have three layers of muscle. A layer of oblique muscle is added to the wall at the stomach which makes it able to stretch and mechanically digest even further. Openings in the stomach, called gastric pits release gastric juice from the gastric glands. An enzyme called pepsin is contained in the gastric juice. Also found is hydrochloric acid that kills most bacteria entering the stomach. It also activates pepsin in protein-rich foods. Due to peristaltic waves, the contents of the stomach are released into the lower intestine a bit at a time.
The small intestine is on average about 18 feet long. It contains every type of enzyme for digesting all kinds of foods. The enzymes come from the pancreas. Bile also enters, which breaks up fat into droplets and is then hydrolyzed by lipase. Amylase and intestinal enzymes break down carbohydrates into glucose. Pancreatic trypsin and intestinal enzymes break down proteins into amino acids. The basic content of the small intestine neutralizes the acidity of chyme. The mucosa of the small intestine is modified for nutrient absorption. Projections called villi contain microscopic, microvilli (projections.) All in all, this greatly increases the surface area of the small intestine for greater absorption. Capillaries run through the villi as well as lymphatic vessels called lacteal. The lacteal absorb chylomicrons (villus-packaged combo of fatty acids and lipoproteins.) Some people lack the brush border enzyme, lactase which breaks down the sugar, lactose (the main sugar of milk and other dairy.) The resulting disorder is lactose intolerance. It causes gas, bloating and even diarrhea. Cheese and yogurt have already had the lactose broken down and is safe for the lactose intolerant. Intake of too much sugar and fat causes obesity which can lead to diabetes two and/or cardiovascular disease. Healthy diet and exercise can combat this.

A cutaway of the villi, of the small intestine.

D. Pancreas, gallbladder, liver and their juices
These particular organs are called accessory organs because they are accessed for digestion without having food pass directly through. them. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice. It contains sodium bicarbonate and the enzymes: pancreatic amylase, trypsin and lipase. It also secretes insulin into blood. Insulin regulates glucose levels. The liver is the largest accessory organ. The liver receives blood to filter out wastes and toxins. The liver also stores iron and vitamins:A, E, K, D and B12 that have come from the blood. It stores insulin-present glucose as glycogen and releases it steadily between meals. After converting amino acids into glucose the combine the unused acids with CO2. to make urea for expulsion. In addition the liver produces bile which regulates the amount of cholesterol in the blood. It is stored in the gallbladder, just below the liver, until released into the small intestine.
Hepatitis and cirrhosis are two disorders that affect the liver. They are serious and life-threatening. . Jaundice can occur, a symptom in which bile leaks into the blood giving the skin and eyes a yellowish tint. Hepatitis, in all its types, is a virus which can be spread through sewage-contaminated drinking water (Hepatitis A), sexual contact or blood transfusion (Hepatitis B, C.) Cirrhosis causes the liver to become overly fatty. Then scar tissue replaces liver tissue. This occurs from over activity from fatty foods and/or alcohol. Artificial livers have been tested and liver transplants are the only option for liver failure, otherwise: death.

Jaundice has caused the eyes of this person, with
Hepatitis A, to turn yellow.

E. Out with it!
After the small intestine, comes the large intestine, which includes the cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal. The cecum has a the appendix projecting from it, which may help fight infection. The colon makes up the majority of the large intestine. It has three parts: ascending, transverse and descending. Then comes the rectum which opens at the anus. The large intestine does not absorb nutrients. It does, however, absorb water for hydration and vitamins produced by bacteria. Feces are formed in the large intestine. 25% of the feces is made up of dietary fiber, bacteria and indigestible material. The other 75% is fluid. Bacterial breakdown causes the odor and gas associated with feces. Defecation is the final phase of digestion. When peristalsis occurs at the rectum the feces are forced into the rectum. Nerve endings send a signal to relax the anus and contract the rectum muscles. Exit occurs.
Many disorders can occur in the large intestine. Diarrhea is usually caused by infection in the lower intestinal tract. Peristalsis increases with irritation. Prolonged diarrhea can causes dehydration and heart contraction disturbance. Constipation is caused frequently from the resistance of the urge to defecate. Hemorrhoids may develop from chronic constipation. These are inflamed blood vessels at the anus. Diverticulosis is caused from patches of mucosa pushing out through the muscularis. Irritable Bowel Syndrome occurs when the muscularis contracts strongly and irregularly. Inflammatory Bowel Disease is the title given to a collection of disorders which cause ulcers. Dietary fat may cause the promotion of colon cancer while fiber appears to inhibit the development of polyps and colon cancer.

The bulge shown is colonic polyp.

F. Nutrition and weight control
Obesity is on the rise worldwide and especially in the United States. This is of great concern because excess fat is linked to diabetes type 2, hypertension, heart disease and premature death. The Body Mass Index (BMI) shows healthy weights as well as warns of overweight and obesity. This can be determined by dividing one's weight in kilograms by the square of the individual's height. Healthy BMIs are between 19.1 and 26.4. Overweight is 26.5 to 31.1. Obesed is 32.3 to 39.9 and 40 and over is morbid obesity. Although, this is only a general rule. The BMI does not take into account factors such as gender, bone structure, muscle content and fitness.
Nutrients are the part of food that is used by the body. Carbohydrates, as studied in chapter two, are consumed and turned into, if not already available as, glucose. It is a major energy source and vital to brain function. Foods with complex carbohydrates can be very good for you, especially since many, naturally, contain vitamins, minerals and fiber. However refined carbohydrates lack other nutrients. The overconsumption of them is probably responsible for obesity in the US. Proteins are digested into amino acids. Some are absolutely integral to the diet. Eggs, milk, meat, poultry and most other animal-derived foods contain all the essential amino acids. No plant source has in itself all of the essential amino acids, except soy products. Amino acids are not stored so a daily supply is necessary. It does not take much, though. Many people take in too much protein daily. Excess amino acids can be ingested by those who think it will increase muscle mass. They are important to muscle building, but too much is just excreted by the body in urine, which can cause dehydration. Lipids are any of the oils, fats and cholesterols. Saturated fats mostly come from animals, save for palm and coconut oil. Polyunsaturated fats, in oils, are important to the diet. Canola oil and safflower oil contain linoleic and linolenic acids, which the body doesn't produce. Olive oil and canola oil contain good amounts omega-3 fatty acids which are great for fighting heart disease. Saturated fats and cholesterol are the major contributors to cardiovascular disease and must be consumed moderately. Minerals are important to the body and are used in different ways. Calcium contributes to strong bones and teeth and to muscle contraction. Phosphorus is essential to bone and soft tissue growth and ATP. Potassium is used in nerve conduction and muscle contraction. Sulfur. Stabilizes protein shape and neutralizes toxins. Sodium is important to pH and water balance. Magnesium is contained in many enzymes for nerve contraction and muscle contraction and is integral to protein synthesis. Zinc is needed for protein synthesis and contributes to healing and fetal development. Iron is very important to hemoglobin. Copper is as well. Iodine is essential to thyroid hormone production. Selenium is found the antioxidant enzyme and manganese is an essential ingredient to enzymes.
Vitamins, organic compounds, are used for metabolic purposes. The body does not produce an adequate amount of vitamins. Some vitamins are parts of coenzymes. Vitamins have various functions. Vitamins C, E and A are antioxidants which fight cancer-causing free radicals. Vitamin D is essential to proper calcium absorption.
A nutritious diet is important to healthy living. It is important to: eat food from all food groups. A lot of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and low-fat milk should be eaten. Eat less food high in saturated and trans fat, added sugar, cholesterol, salt and alcohol. Eat lean meat and dry beans and peas for protein. Lastly, it is very important to remain physically active.
Some people suffer from different eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa is a disorder in which a person has an unreasonable fear of being fat. People with anorexia usually starve themselves and have marked binges of eating. Bulimia Nervosa is marked by binge-eating and then purging to keep from gaining weight. Purging is done through self-induced vomiting and overuse of laxatives. Binge-eating disorder is marked by periods of overeating. Muscle dysmorphia is a disorder where a person believes he or she is not muscular enough. These people obsess over diet and weight training.

Tofu, a soy product, is an excellent source of
essential amino acids.

Sources:

Digestive system http://www.i-can-drink-milk-again.com/images/Human-Digestive-System-Picture.jpg

Jaundice http://www.in.gov/isdh/programs/hivstd/hepatitis/figure2.gif

Polyp http://www.bowelcheck.co.nz/images/polyp-colon.jpg

Tofu Robot http://zedomax.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/04/tofu-robot-1.gif

Compendium I Unit II

2008-03-10T14:16:00.000-07:00

I. Heart & Blood

A. The cardiovascular system

B. Types of blood vessels

C. Double pump

D. Its features include...

E. Robert Frost, eat your heart out (two pathways)

F. Take this! Take that!

G. Disorders

II. Blood

A. Blood

B. Red Blood Cells

C. White Blood Cells

D. Platelets

E. Blood Typing

F. Homeostasis

III. Lymphatic System and Immunity

A. Microbes, pathogens and You

B. The Lymphatic System

C. Nonspecific Defenses

D. Specific Defenses

E. Acquired Immunity

F. Hypersensitivity Reactions

I. Heart and Blood

A. The cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system is the heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood. The blood vessels carry blood, which carry nutrients and oxygen and carry carbon dioxide and wastes to dispel. The exchange of nutrients and waste happens with the tissue fluid and not with actual cells. An overview of the functions of the cardiovascular system includes: blood pumping by the heart through contractions, vessels transporting blood from the heart to capillaries and veins then back to the heart, nutrient/waste exchange at the capillaries (the smallest of blood vessels), regulation of blood flow by the heart and vessels according to bodily need.
The lymphatic system works hand in hand with the cardiovascular system in collecting and returning excess and necessary fluid to the blood.

A diagram of the cardiovascular system

B. Types of blood vessels

There are three different types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries are the thickest of blood vessels. There are three layers to the wall of an artery. The first is the endothelium, which is very thin. . The second is fairly thick and made of elastic tissue. The outer layer is made of connective tissue. A small version of the artery is the arteriole, which have more muscle fiber than elastic tissue. These properties help arteries to contract and dilate.
Capillaries are at the end of arterioles. They cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are made of only one wall of endothelium. Capillary beds, which are vast networks of capillaries, are found in every different area of the human body. Only certain beds are open at any time. When a bed is closed the precapillary sphincter contracts, shutting off and redirecting the flow of blood.
Vein walls are similar to arterial walls in make up. Veins, however, have less connective tissue and less elastic tissue. Venules are small passageways that direct blood from capillaries to veins. Veins usually have valves. These valves keep blood flowing to the heart when open and stop blood from flowing backward when the veins are closed. These are necessary in veins that carry blood from the feet to the heart, for example. Veins carry most of the blood at any given time. This way blood can be "held" and redirected in times of hemorrhaging.

a cutaway of the artery wall

C. Double pump

The heart is a large muscular organs (approximately the size of ones fist with the other hand clasping the fist.) which is found between the lungs and behind the sternum. Most of the heart consists of the myocardium. This muscular tissue pumps blood. The pericardium surrounds the heart and supports and protects it. Inside the septum separates the heart into two sides. There are four chambers to the heart. The upper two are the left atrium and the right atrium. The two lower chambers are the left and right ventricles. The valves that may between the atria and ventricles are called atrioventricular valves. Chordae tendineae, muscles attached to the ventricular walls, keep the valves from inverting when the heart contracts. The right valve is called the tricuspid, because of its three flaps. The left valve is called the bicuspid, because of its two flaps. The other valves are the semilunar valves. These go from the ventricles to their respective vessels.
There is a complex system through which blood flows through the heart. Here is a list of vessels and systems in the heart and their functions: The superior and inferior vena cava carry blood low in O2 to right atrium which sends the blood through the tricuspid to the right ventricle. It sends the blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The trunk carries the blood into two divided pulmonary arteries which carries the blood to the lungs. From the lungs the blood is carried by 4 pulmonary veins into the left atrium. From here it is sent through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle. The blood is, then, sent through the aortic semilunar valve. into the aorta and into the body. The blood is never mixed between O2 rich and O2. This is an amazingly complex system. Because the left chambers have the harder work, they are thicker and better equipped for the harder task of pumping blood further. Blood pressure is also significantly greater on this side of the heart.
Every heartbeat is called a cardiac cycle. First both atria contract, then both ventricles contract. After this all chambers relax. The contraction phase is called systole. The relaxation period is called diastole. An average amount of heart beats per minute is about 70. The sinoatrial node is what generates the heartbeat internally. It is referred to as the pacemaker. The medulla oblungata contains a cardiac control that monitors external conditions and reacts accordingly to regulate heartbeat. It will release hormones that can stimulate higher heartbeat rates. This happens during periods of activity, like exercise.

This diagram shows both ways that blood flows

D. Its features include...

Blood pressure is strongest in the aorta, as this is where is first travels through when the ventricles contract. It becomes progressively weaker and is weakest in the venae cavae of the right atrium. The heart pump makes the blood vessels stretch and return in a rhythmic fashion. This is the pulse. Pulses are commonly felt in the wrist (the radial artery) and in the neck and heel (the cartoid artery.) Blood pressure is defined as the pressure blood places on a vessel wall. A device called a sphygmomanometer is used to read blood pressure. A band is tightened around an artery until its pressure is higher than the blood pressure. As pressure is released from the band the sphygmomanometer will pick up the pulse. The first jump of pressure is the systolic pressure. This is the highest point of blood pressure and is achieved when blood is ejected from the heart. The last pulse caught reads the diastolic pressure. This is the lowest point of blood pressure and occurs when the ventricles are relaxed. When blood pressure is read it is shown as systolic over diastolic. Normal blood pressure can have a systolic value of anywhere from 95-135. The diastolic norm is between 50 and 90. When the blood pressure of an individual is higher than these they have hypertension. If it is lower than it is called hypotension. Blood flows much slower in capillaries, which aids in a good exchange of substances with tissue fluid. Since blood pressure is slower in veins they depend on factors other than blood pressure to pump blood back to the heart. These are the skeletal muscle pump, the respiratory pump and valves. When pressure is released by both the skeletal muscles and the abdominal cavity (from breathing) valves close, keeping blood from flowing back down.

E. Robert Frost, eat your heart out (two pathways)

There are two circuits the blood flows in: the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. The pulmonary circuit circulates blood through the lungs. When blood returns to the heart it is pumped through the right atrium into the pulmonary trunk. The blood goes into one of the two pulmonary arteries and releases CO2 through the capillaries into the lungs. The blood cells pick up oxygen and then go into one of the four pulmonary veins that lead into the left atrium. The systemic circuit includes the pathways of blood to all other parts of the body where oxygen is taken to be exchanged for CO2 with tissue fluid. Then the CO2 rich blood returns to the heart. The major artery is the aorta. The major veins are the superior and inferior vena cava. Other arteries include the mesenteric, the common iliac, femoral, renal, subclavian and the cartoid. Common veins are the internal and external jugular, renal, mesenteric, common iliac, femoral and the great saphenous vein. Coronary arteries supply the hearts blood. It is not nourished by the blood in its chambers. The coronary arteries are the first branches of the aorta. Their small diameter makes them more susceptible to clogging then other arteries. This is what cardiovascular disease is, essentially.

F. Take this! Take that!

Blood pressure moves water from capillaries to tissue fluid. Osmotic pressure moves water from tissue fluid to blood. Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the end of arterial vessels. This causes water to exit to tissue fluid here. Diffusion happens in the middle of the capillary where the pressures are equal. Oxygen and nutrients exit the vessel and CO2 diffuses into the vessel. At the venule end osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure and water moves into the capillary. Lymphatic capillaries catch excess tissue fluid. The fluid is returned to the blood vessels at the subclavian veins.

The order of operations in the capillaries

G. Disorders

There are various cardiovascular disorders. Hypertension and atherosclerosis are two that affect the blood vessels, specifically. Hypertension is an abnormally high blood pressure. It can be the cause of stroke heart attacks, strokes or kidney failure. Atherosclerosis is a storing of cholesterol in the arteries. These deposits are called plaque. This will interfere with the flow of blood. Plaque can cause clots to form on arterial walls. A stationary clot is called a thrombus. When a clot moves it is called an embolus. Thromboembolism is a clot that moved but became stationary. This is a very dangerous disorder. Smoking, high-fat diets and lots of cholesterol all contribute to atherosclerosis. This can, naturally, lead to a heart attack. Anuerysms are also associated with hypertension and atherosclerosis. Anuerysms cause a blood vessels to swell. This happens mostly in the abdominal arteries and in the arteries leading to the brain.
When a person suffers a heart attack their heart is weaker. It has become saggy and/or swollen. There can be an abnormal beating. When this has happened it is sometimes necessary to put in a cardioverter- defibrillator. This will generate missing beats and, with electricity, send a jolt to slow the heart down when too fast. Heart transplants are also an option, but an unlikely one. Many more people are waiting for a heart than are hearts available. Genetically altered pig hearts are a possible avenue in the future. Other rarely-used devices are LVADs and the Jarvik 2000 which are pumps ran by external batteries. Very few people have received TAHs (total artificial hearts) these are controlled by an external battery feeds energy to an internal coil through the skin. The internal battery regulates the heart rate. The heart is an artificial pump.

II Blood

A. Blood
Humans have about 5 liters of blood. There are three functions of blood: transport, defense and regulation. Blood transport different substances to tissue fluid for cellular use throughout the body. The main commodity for transport is oxygen, absolutely necessary to cellular activity. It then takes away waste, like CO2, for expulsion. Blood also carries hormones from their area of origin to organs and tissue in need of them. Some blood cells fight and kill pathogens in the body. Some do this directly and others secrete antibodies, which render pathogens useless, making them easier to kill. Defense also includes repair. When a blood vessel is opened blood clots using platelets and plasma to seal up the wound until it heals. Blood also keeps homeostasis in the body. Blood holds heat and when it is too hot, releases it through vessels close to the skin. Blood keeps bodily pH fairly constant, as well.
Blood is considered a liquid tissue because it cells and cell fragments, known as formed elements, are engulfed in plasma. red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are the formed elements of blood. These originate in red bone marrow. The stem cells in red marrow will eventually become specific formed elements in blood. Though red blood cells are much smaller than white blood cells there are many many more of them in any given area.
Plasma is about 91% water and 9% organic molecules and salts. Salts maintain the pH of blood. Plasma carries and distributes heat. Plasma proteins in plasma help keep the pH balance as well as keep in plasma at capillary exchange. Albumins, globulins and fibrogens are the three major types of plasma proteins. Their functions include osmotic pressure, transport and blood clotting.

B. Red blood cells
The proper name for red blood cells is erythrocytes. They are nucleus-less, biconcave (concave on both sides) and are incredibly bountiful. Their main function is carrying oxygen. Red blood cells contain a lot of hemoglobin: a compound that contains iron for oxygen pick up and release and protein. Each red blood cell carries over one billion O2 molecules. Red blood cells get their concave shape from losing their nucleus as they grow. This shape gives a larger surface area which is great for gas release and collection. They do not use any oxygen they carry and make ATP anaerobically.
The protein in hemoglobin picks up CO2 as well as the plasma, which takes it with hydrogen. Once in the lungs the CO2 is released through diffusion. As previously stated, red blood cells are produced in red bone marrow. They begin with stem cells with nuclei. When they divide they become red blood cells devoid of a nucleus. When their cycle is done they are destroyed by white blood cells in the liver and spleen. About 2 million red blood cells are created every second and 2 million are destroyed in the same time. Hemoglobin is released at RBC destruction. The proteins are broke down into amino acids and distributed. The iron is returned to the bone marrow for reuse.
Blood doping is an artificial version of the body's way of producing more red blood cells when necessary. This is done when more oxygen is needed in the body. The process is this: the kidney release erythropoietin. This stimulates stem cells in marrow and catalyzes RBC production. Athletes have done this process by injecting EPO into themselves and then removing blood and concentrated before returning them to the blood. This is a dangerous process that has killed cyclists, specifically, because of the sport's preference for blood doping.
There are specific red blood cell-related disorders. Anemia is a lack of sufficient RBCs of from lack of hemoglobin. One suffering from anemia feels fatigued. Often this happens from B vitamin deficiency. Hemolysis is a disorder in which red blood cells rupture. Sickle cell disease is a condition in which the oddly-shaped RBCs tend to rupture in the capillaries.

A photo of red blood cells

C. White blood cells
Leukocytes is the proper name of white blood cells. White blood cells aren't actually white, but are transparent. They are much larger than red blood cells and contain a nucleus. They do not carry hemoglobin. White blood cells are integral to immunity.There are different types of white blood cells. nuetrophils are the most abundant. They are the first response to bacterial infection. When they die their collection in an area often becomes pus. Eosinophils increase in number when an allergic reaction or a parasitic worm are present. Basophils release histamine which causes blood vessel dilation and air tube constriction. Lymphocytes make up about 25-30% of all white blood cells. They are active in immunity to poisonous substances. there are two different types of lymphocytes: b cells and t cells. B cells make antibodies. T cells destroy pathogens. Monocytes are the largest white blood cell. Their job is to act as vacuum cleaners. They phagocytize debris, dead cells and pathogens. They also send out a sort of warning signal to lymphocytes for defense.
There are different disorders of white blood cells. The lack of the enzyme adenosine deaminase causes sever combined immunodeficiency disease. There are about 100 babies born with SCID every year. The only treatments are regular injections of the lacking enzyme and gene therapy. Leukemia is an uncontrollable growth of one or more groups of white blood cells. They do not perform their normal function because of mutation. Epstein-Barr virus is responsible for infectious mononucleosis when infecting lymphocytes. EBV is a very common human virus. The symptoms of mono will disappear after a month or two, but the virus will stay dormant in a person all of their life. It is called the kissing disease because it can be passed through saliva, which definitely occurs during kissing.

D. Platelets
Thrombocyte is the proper name for a blood platelet. Platelets are not cells, but cell fragments. 200 billion platelets are produced in a human body each day. They are crucial to blood clotting. They work in conjunction with thrombin and fibrinogen (plasma proteins manufactured in the liver) to achieve clotting. Platelets clump at the sight of a break in a vessel. When the cut or puncture is large a blood clot is necessary. Platelets will release prothrombin activator. This turns prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombrin cuts fibrogin into two chains. The fragments will join end to end into a large threadlike chain called fibrin. Fibrin, then, creates a sort of web in the broken area of the vessel. Red blood cells get caught in the fibrin which gives a clot its red color.
Thrombocytopenia is a lack of sufficient amounts of platelets. Complications include bleeding in the brain, nose, gastrointestinal tract, mouth as well as rashes and bruising. Clotting can also occur around plaque, in a blood vessel. This can cause heart attacks. Hemophilia is a disorder which can cause bleeding into the joints and at worst the brain which often causes death.

E. Blood typing
There are different types of blood. The type depends on the antigens in the membranes and the antibodies of the blood. The different types are referred to as A, B, AB and O. Another property is the the Rh factor. Rh is an antigen that is present in only some individuals. Rh antigens would possibly be destroyed by Rh antibodies in Rh- blood. This is important when multiple Rh+ children are born to Rh- women. The subsequent children could have blood cells destroyed by anti Rh antibodies that developed from previous exposure to Rh antigens. If an Rh- women gives birth to an Rh+ positive child, she can be given a shot of Rh immunoglobulin within 72 hours. This prevents the damage to any subsequent Rh+ positive children. Antibodies are an important factor in transfusion because antibodies from certain types of blood would connect blood cells with the proper antigen together. This causes clumping known as agglutination. Agglutination must be avoided, which is why blood typing is important to transfusions.

F. Homeostasis
Tissue fluid is derived from blood. It is very similar to plasma, but contains no plasma proteins. Because tissue fluid is collected, transported by and distributed by the lymphatic system its relation to the cardiovascular system is intimate. The cycle for fluid goes: blood plasma, tissue fluid, lymphatic system and back to blood plasma. The cardiovascular system must deliver oxygen and nutrients to needy organs and tissue. It collects oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive system. It then must transport waste from the tissue fluid to the lungs (CO2) and kidneys. Lymphatic vessels must cycle fluid. The muscular system is important to the perpetuation of the cardiovascular system.The Heart and skeletal muscle contraction pump blood and moves lymph. The kidneys help regulate the pH balance as well as the salt-water balance of blood and tissue fluid.

III. The Lymphatic System and Immunity

A. Microbes, pathogens and you
Microbes is a term that encompasses any of the microscopic organisms. They are everywhere and on everything. Many of them exist on and in our bodies. They are not all harmful, by any means, many of them are quite helpful. Some bacteria produce food and drugs. They are elemental to decomposition. Plants use the nutrients from decompositions to create the molecules that become food for us. Of course there are some harmful microbes. Some bacteria and all viruses are infectious and cause disease. These are called pathogens.
Bacteria are prokaryotes that lack a nucleus. There are three main shapes of bacteria: bacillus (rod shape), spirillum (curved spiral), and coccus (spherical shape.) The cell wall is coated with a gel-like substance that is called the capsule. The capsule gives the ability to stick to surfaces. Flagella are a feature of moving bacteria. It is a long, tail-like appendage that rotates for movement. Another adhesive feature are the fimbriae. These little hair-like materials help bacteria stick. A pilus is a feature of some bacteria that causes them to be able to transfer DNA from one cell to another. Bacteria carry an independent ring of genetics called a plasmid. This is where the DNA for most resistance to antibiotics can be found. Bacteria reproduce through a process called binary fission. The cell replicates and splits. Bacteria can double their numbers every 12 minutes. Bacteria can cause disease, they also release byproducts called toxins. Toxins can cause particular symptoms.
Viruses are another microbe that are very peculiar. Viruses are absolutely inactive without a host. However, once inside a host they begin replicating inside cells. Since parasites do not live independently, they are called obligate parasites. They are acellular. A few examples are AIDS, chicken pox, flu and rabies. Viruses are have two parts: an outer capsid, made of protein and an inner core of nucleic acid. Viruses lock onto a cell and from there the nucleic acid enters the cell, having itself replicated by the host. One of the most common forms of virus spread is through a vector. A vector is a carrier, like an insect, that will take the virus from an infected individual to a healthy one.
Prions are proteins in the brain and nervous system of animals. When an individual is healthy the function of the prion is unknown. However prions can change their shape, and when they do, they can cause damaging nerve and brain diseases. Prions were once thought to be viral infections. Prion diseases in human are rare.

this picture shows all three shapes of bacteria

B. Lymphatic system
The lymphatic vessels were talked about in the last chapter. Along with them are the lymphatic organs. Its functions are: collect excess tissue fluid and return it to blood, absorb fats and transport them to blood, production of lymphocytes to aid, along with other antigens, the immune system in defense. Lymph vessels carry tissue fluid back to blood veins in the shoulders. The two main ducts are on the right and left side of the body and return fluid from their respective side to the blood vessels.
The different lymphatic organs are: red bone marrow, thymus gland, lymph nodes and the spleen. Red bone marrow produces white blood cells. They mature here, all except for T lymphocytes which reach maturation in the thymus gland. The lymph nodes and spleen purify, purge and protect lymph. In adults red bone marrow is only found in the sternum, ribs, pelvic girdle, humerus and the femur. The thymus gland produces a hormone called thymosin, which is thought to aid in T lymphocyte maturation. The spleen filters blood. Lymph nodes filter lymph. Lymphatic nodules are areas of concentrated lymphatic tissue that are not encapsulated like lymph nodes. The tonsils is a great example of lymph nodules.

This photo show the location of the lymph nodules, tonsils.

C. Nonspecific defenses
Immunity is the ability to fight and destroy cancers and diseases. nonspecific defenses are immunity features that filter without discrimination. Two of these are barriers of entry and phagocytic white blood cells through the inflammatory response. some examples of barriers of entry are: the skin and mucous membranes (which block out or guard entry ways like the respiratory and digestive system), chemical barriers (chemicals such as lysozyme are antibacterial) and resident bacteria (bacteria that are normally found in the body that leave no room for pathogens.)
The inflammatory response can be detected if the are contains: redness,heat, pain and swelling. When an area is damged capillaries dilate causing excess blood flow. This causes redness and heat. The heat can kill some pathogens. This also causes swelling. The blood brings white blood cells to fight infection and help clotting to prevent blood loss. Excess tissue fluid pressing on nerve endings causes the pain. Neutrophils go in first vacuuming up dead cells, bacteria and debris. If the work is too much for neutrophils they secrete a chemical called cytokine. Cytokines attract white blood cells such as monocytes, which are more powerful than neutrophils.
Another helpful immune feature are protective proteins. The operation and composition of these is called the compliment system. These proteins form a complex and produce and attack holes in bacteria. The These holes allow fluids and salts to enter the bacteria until the bacteria bursts. Other complement proteins trigger chemical releases and ensure phagocytosis by white blood cells.

D. Specific defenses
The immune system is able to detect foreign particles in the body, called antigens. Lymphocytes respond to antigens. There are specific lymphocytes for every antigen, because each lymphocyte has a different receptor for every different antigen. When a b lymphocyte connects to an antigen it makes many copies of itself called clones. They will either become plasma b cells which will travel in the bloodstream releasing antibodies, or memory cells, which are there to fight an invasion of the same antigen at a later time. B cell defense is called antibody-mediated immunity. This is because plasma b cells give off antibodies for defense. Antibodies' basic structures are Y-shaped. The antigens fit on the sight receptors on the ends of the light chain branches (the short Y arms.) Either the antibodies will neutralize the pathogen or call for white blood cells to destroy the antigens. There are five different types of antibodies, they are: IgG ( most common), IgM (largest antibody), IgA (main antibody in saliva), IgD (located on immature b cells) and Ige (found in basophils and on mast cells.)
Some t cell defense is called cell-mediated immunity. This is when a t cell directly attacks a pathogen. Other times they release cytokines to stimulate defenses.T cells detect antigens because a macrophage will bring a piece of it for recognition to a lymph node where t cells are concentrated. These helper cells are called antigen-presenting cells. Then the t cells are able to distinguish foreign from regular. The proteins brought for recognition by the APC are called human leukocyte antigens, or HLA. There are two types of HLA (HLA I and HLA II.) If the identified protein is HLA I then the t cells will produce cytotoxic cells, through clonal expansion. Cytotoxic cells latch on to viral infected or tumor cells. They use a chemical called perforin to create holes in the cell. Then they inject enzymes, called granzymes, to cause the cell to die. If the protein displayed in HLA II then the t cell will produce helper t cells through clonal expansion. Helper t cells release cytokines which cause a response from other white blood cells. B cells are not employed actively without helper t cells.

This diagram explains the process
of B cell activation.

E. Acquired immunity
Acquired immunity is the medical intervention which causes immunity. The two types of acquired immunity are active and passive. Active immunity involves the bod's immune system to fight infection. This can happen naturally or artificially. Immunization is an artificial method of active immunity. A vaccine is given to an individual by injection or ingestion. Vaccines contain an antigen from a particular pathogen that triggers the body to fight it. One can measure the immune activity with the antibody titer. This shows the response of antibodies to a vaccination. When a second vaccination is given it is called a booster shot because it increases the response of the antibodies to the particular vaccine. Passive immunity involves the process of using prepared antibodies to combat infection. The individual does not produce these antibodies so passive immunity is not permanent. These can be injected or ingested as well. Sometimes monoclonal antibodies are used from other individuals. Cytokines can be inject to catalyze cytotoxic t cells that were not activated, like in the case of some cancers.

F. Hypersensitivity reactions
Allergies are a hypersensitivity to foreign substances. Allergic reactions are triggered, sometimes within seconds of contact with an allergen. Anaphylactic shock is an allergic reaction that occurs when an allergen has enterd the bloodstream. It is recognized by a sudden drop in blood pressure. Delayed reactions are caused by memory t cells at the contact of allergens. This often happens with allergies that affect the skin.
Another reaction is that of tissue rejection. The body can reject organ transplants. The body recognizes that these tissues are foreign and cytotoxin t cells attack the new tissue cells. Sometimes immunosuppressive drugs are used to aid in transplant success. These drugs inhibit the production of cytokines. Labs are attempting to grow organs that are HLA antigen free, which would make transplant success rates soar.
Sometimes, peoples cytotoxic t cells will attack the body's own cells, mistakenly. This is called autoimmune disease. Its cause is unknown. Sometimes people have immune deficiencies. These people are unable to protect their bodies against infection.

sources

Cardiovascular system http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f22-1_cardiovascular_sy_c.jpg

circulatory system http://www.besthealth.com/besthealth/bodyguide/reftext/images/8747.jpg

artery http://www.csm.ornl.gov/Internships/rams_06/websites/e_lennartz/img/Layers.jpg

capillary exchange http://www.coolschool.ca/lor/BI12/unit9/U09L08/CTFEx.gif

b cell activationhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/B_cell_activation.png/300px-B_cell_activation.png

Oxygen Circulation Immunity Lab

2008-03-08T14:23:00.000-08:00

This lab was not difficult. It was not boring, either. It was however incredibly frustrating. I have no journal to show. I am glad I did take down all of the information, because it never emailed it to me. Needless to say, the professional element is lacking.

Here is the average blood pressures for each group:

Table

117	75	117	76
128	79	116	76
131	81	117	77
132	83	127	81
134	85	133	83

The x-axis shows the average systolic and diastolic pressure of first male then female for each age group. The y-axis shows the age groups starting from the youngest on top to the oldest on the bottom.

This is a graph displaying the information above.

Here is the journal (so to speak) with the questions and answers from the blood pressure investigations.

1.State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

It seems the older one gets the more likely he/she is to have high blood pressure. This is slightly more likely in males than females.

2.Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

3.As the age of an individual in the study increases, so does their blood pressure. this is more likely in males than in females.

4.How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?

Take the average blood pressure of each age group in each gender. compare the average in each age group. record the number of people with hypertension in each age group. compare.

5.Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

males have a steady increase of blood pressure as they get older. Females have a more drastic increase between the ages of 35 and 44. Male blood pressure is usually higher than female blood pressure. It is significantly higher than females in the 25-34 years of age range. perhaps this has more to do with the difference between female and male diet and alcohol consumption.

6.Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

The conclusion supported my hypothesis. The older a person gets the higher their blood pressure gets. The older a person gets the more likely they are to have hypertension.

7.During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

There were a few that were out of the normal range and higher than the average normal range. Those with higher blood pressure often either had high salt intake, were overweight, did not exercise and/or consumed alcohol.

8.List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

I listed the risk factors previously. They include: lack of exercise, obesity, high-sodium diet, history of familiar hypertension and alcohol consumption. The highest risk factor is most likely a history of hypertension.

9.What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

Obesity does affect blood pressure. It usually causes higher blood pressure. Obesity alone rarely causes hypertension. Lack of exercise, history of hypertension and high sodium diet are factors that would increase the risk of hypertension in obese individuals.

Genetic Engineering: The Upside of Down (or Visa Versa.)

2008-02-17T19:12:00.000-08:00

Genetic engineering is a wide and varied topic. To confine it to one small aspect of popular interest would be unfair to the whole prospect. There are certainly up sides and down sides to the entire field, though often a pro would be a particular area of interest, as would be a con. So let’s look at a few flash points of interest.
Recombinant DNA technology is a process of genetic introduction into an organism. This is often used on plasmids in bacteria because of the ease of independent reproduction. A good amount of DNA can be produced from this method. This is great for obtaining useful genes in deficient people. For example, insulin can be cloned in bacteria plasmids and may actually be used for treatment of Diabetes. I think this is great! We can use plasmids, which replicate independently of the host bacteria and can hold a fairly good amount of foreign DNA. Only studies will bring about treatments. Yet as in anything, I think it would take a long time and countless experiments before any such genes could be proven to be effective as well as safe.
Another hot issue is that of GMOs as food. GMOs, of genetically modified organisms, are already a part of most people’s diet. A significant amount of plants and animals consumed are GMOs. Because GMOs are fairly new to human consumption it is bothersome to think that they have not been tried and true before being sent to the public’s stomachs. They have made production efficient and have been able to produce bigger animals and plants. But what about the long term effects on: a. the human body b. the ecosystem? They have passed rodent testing, but rodents don’t live nearly as long as humans. This is a plus in one manner. The generations are shorter for longevity testing. The down side is that a mass amount of these products can’t really have an effect that we can be certain of. There is also the possibility that GMOs will overstep their physical bounds and affect the natural population. This is a dangerous game that we have begun to play on open land.
Lastly and expectedly, there is the highly controversial issue of stem-cell research. It is so controversial because of obtainment methods. They are extracted from human eggs five days after division has begun. This, of course, implies that the egg has been inseminated and life is generated. Some would say that life has not truly begun at this point. I would argue that cellular activity is a clear indication of life. We cannot be separated from it. We are, because of cellular activity. Cellular activity is because we are. Now there is the probability that this is all done with donor gametes that would be useless otherwise. This is true. However, I am with the older school that thinks it not wise to play God. This is not simply a conservative idea, but the idea of radicals the world over. Some who believe in a higher power or God think it not wise to mess with what that power has put in play. I agree. I also think that it is a highly un-Darwinian Evolutionistic to want to tamper with what natural selection has regulated. Who knows what would become of a world where all are strong, none are weak and all survive. There is a delicate balance of life and death, and though some may think this is divine and others think it chance, it is balanced because it works. It is delicate and who knows what unbalance may come of such alterations.

Compendium Review II: let's dig the duplication

2008-02-15T15:33:00.000-08:00

I. Chromosomal Inheritance

A. Chromosomes and the cell cycle

B. Mitosis and meiosis
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
3. Comparison

C. Chromosome Inheritance

II. DNA

A. DNA/RNA: Structure and function?

B. Gene Expression

C. Genomics

D. DNA technology

III. Cancer

A. Cancer cells

B. Cancer causes

C. Diagnosis

D. Treatment

IV. Patterns of Inheritance

A. Genotype vs. phenotype

B. One and two-trait inheritance

C.When it's more than that

D. Sex-linked inheritance

I. Chromosomal Inheritance

A. Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle

Every human has 46 Chromosomes. They are paired into twenty three bonded pairs. Only the sex chromosome determines gender. In females there are two "homologous" (look alikes)X chromosomes. Males have an Xchromosome and a Y chromosome. The two separate parts of a chromosome are called "sister chromatids." One is, basically, a duplicate of the other. They are held together by a weak hydrogen bond. This holding point is called the "centromere."
Interphase is the process in which a cell grows and prepares for division. This is also when a cell goes about its specific business. In humans about 90% of a cell's life is spent in interphase. There are three stage
A microscopic view of the

Male "X,Y" chromosomes.
B. Mitosis and meiosis

1. Mitosis

We briefly touched on Mitosis above. But what exactly is it and how does it work? Mitosis is simply division by duplication. The interpahse of a cell readied everything for duplication. Chromatin in the nucleus became dense as it was produced. This is when chromosomes become visible. The Chromosomes are duplicated which make the sister chromatids. When mitosis begins the centromeres divide (it is a weak bond.) The centrosome also duplicates. The centrosome is, naturally, at the center of the cell. It contains to centrioles. This centrosomes assembles fibers that attache to the chromatids and separates them. This happens during "anaphase", the third phase of cell division. The two that precede it are the prophase and metaphase. The final phase is telophase. In prophase The centrosomes duplicate as well as the chromosomes. The nuclear envelope disappears as the centrosomes begin to move to opposite sides. In metaphase the spindle fibers of the centrosomes attach to the centromeres of the chromatids and the centromeres become aligned in the middle. Anaphase is marked by the pulling apart of the chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. Equal numbers of chromosomes are taken to each side. Telophase shows the reappearance of nuclear envelopes as the daughter cells become visible. Chromosomes become chromatin again. All the while the organelles have moved and the middle of the cell has become pinched as it becomes two cells. This is the process of cytokinesis spoke of earlier.

2. Meiosis

We now that Mitosis is duplication division. Meiosis is reduction division. The parents cell has the diploid number of chromosomes. The chrmosomes duplicate. Then the first stage of meiosis takes place.This is the last time that paired chromosomes are together during meiosis. The cell splits in two and each cell takes one of each pair of chromosomes. This cell is now a "haploid" which means it has only half the number of chromosomes. THen the second stage of meiosis, or meiosisII, takes place. Here, the centromeres holding the chromatids together, separates. The new daughter cells of each original daughter cells, now have one chromatid each. So what started as one cell has now become four with only half the original number of chromosomes. The cells that reproduce through meiosis are gametes, or sex cells. The only way that the fulll number of chromosomes will be restored is through fertilization.

3. Comparison

Mitosis and meiosis are different in many different ways. Here are some of them:

1. Mitosis consists of one division. Meiosis has two.

2. There are four daughter cells as a result of meiosis. There are only two daughter cells in Mitosis.

3. Meiosis' daughter cells are haploids, with only half of the full number of chromosomes. Mitosis' cells are diploids with the full number of cells.

4. Mitosis' daughter cells are identical to the parent cell. Meiosis' daughter cells are not.

5. During the prophase of meiosis chromosomes cross over and exchange genetic information. This doesn't happen in mitosis.

6. Pairs of homologous chromosomes align at the "equator" of the cell during meiosis I. There is only one of each chromosome that aligns in mitosis.

7. Meiosis II and mitosis are very similar except the daughter cells of meiosis are haploids.

C. Chromosomal inheritance

Humans generally have 23 pairs of chromosomes. 22 of them are autosomes (not sex chromsomes) and 1 pair is sex chromosomes. Some people end up having irregular numbers f chromosomes because of nondisjunction (non separation of chromosomes) during meiosis. This can happen at either stage. It leaves one cell with too many chromosomes and the other with too little. When a cell with too many chromosomes is fertilized it is called trisonomy. When the opposite occurs it is called monosomy. The chances of survival for one with a trisonomy is greater than that of a monosomy. Also the chance is greater if nondisjunction has occured with the sex cells. Though the "disorders" are different the extra X or Y chromosomes have littler impact on survival. Down Syndrome is the result of having one too many chromosome 21s. Turner Syndrome is the result of having only the X sex chromosome, while Klinefelter Syndrome is the result of having an exta X chromosome. Sometimes a change in the structure of chromosomes will also cause mutations. If the broken ends don't reunite, reunite with a duplicate or reunite in the wrong place mutations occur. Williams syndrome is an example of deletion (the end of a chromosome is lost.)

Jeremy Vest, who has Williams Syndrome is a perfect
example of its carriers natural draw to music.

II. DNA

A. DNA/RNA: Structure and function

DNA, as previously discussed, is the material that contains genetic code. DNA must be able to do three things: 1. Replicate 2. Store genetic information 3. undergo mutations for diversity.DNA structure is a double helix. There are two backbone strands of polynucleotides that contain the paired bases. These bases make rungs across the strands. The bases are Adenine and Thymine (complimentary and pair together) and Guanine and Cytosine (complimentary to each other.) When DNA replicates the strands split and a new strand joins each of the old strands. Then any breaks in the backbone strand are repaired and we have two DNA molecules. When errors occur in replication, they will usually be fixed by enzymes. Those that continue are called mutations.
RNA, instead of having the Thymine nucleotide, has Uracil as a complimentary base to Adenine. RNA is single stranded.There are different RNA with different functions. mRNA (messenger RNA) carries the information from DNA templates to the cytoplasm for DNA synthesis. tRNA (transfer RNA) transfers amino acids to ribosomes for DNA synthesis. Each type of amino acid is carried by a different type of tRNA. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) make up the sub units of ribosomes for DNA sysnthesis.

B. Gene Expression

Proteins (which make up DNA and RNA) are made of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids that commonly make up proteins. Their number and position is what determines the type of protein one will be and the shape it will take. These are, naturally, integral to DNA synthesis and gene expression. The first step is called transcription. This is where mRNA transcribes the DNA template with genetic coding. It is then taken to the ribosome for translation. In translation, the nucleotides of the mRNA transcript are translated into amino acids for for gene expression.This genetic code, of four nucleotide bases, is a triplet code. The bases are read in units of three and each three base-section translates to a certain amino acid. These sections are known as codons. They are read by anticodons which are carried by tRNA that are attached to the correct amino acid for the protein being made.

Translation in progress, as anticodons
place amino acids in the right order.

C. Genomics

Genomics (the study of one's genome or collective heredity information) is, of course, a very important aspect of modern science. The Human Genome Project has been put together to better understand the human genome. They have succeeded in identifying most if not all of the genes of the human genome. The future goal is to understand a genes specific function and how it actually creates a human being. Comparative genomics is an attempt to determine the evolution of species, namely humans. They have, in doing so, made interesting insight to human disease and would hope to find more links to diseases.
Since proteins are often translated from genes. There is much to be studied in them IBM's "Blue Gene" supercomputer is one endeavor in proteomics, or the study of the proteome. It is also an advancement in Bioinformatics, the study of genomes with computer technology. There are many studies in these areas going on to help improve the human condition. Gene therapy is an applied region of genomics. This is where genetic material is put into the human cells for correction of genetic disorders. This is stil a very young science, but much progress is being made and treatment of many disorders are in the works.

D. DNA Technology

Cloning is a relatively young area of biology. It is the producing of copies of DNA. This is done asexually and technologically. Recombinant DNA is cloned DNA of more than one source. Plasmids in bacteria are a particularly common subject for this process. This way specific genes can be produced, then isolated for use. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a process that takes a small section of DNA and copies the sequence. It has been used to determine DNA strands of mummified brains, identify unknown soldiers, determine fatherhood of posterity and determine perpetrators of crimes. Many products have come from cloning and biotechnology. Many plants have been engineered to be resistant to pests and herbicides. Animals have been given growth hormones to be larger and reproduce faster. The sky is really the limit with this technology.

The genetically modified tomato, on the
right is significantly larger than the
"organic" tomato.The
issue of Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs) is a highly
controversial topic.

III. Cancer

A. Cancer cells

Cancer is a name for many different types of diseases that can appear in almost any part of the body. The reason they are called cancer is that they all have certain things in common. Cancer is cellular. Cancer cells are conspicuous and abnormal. The nucleus of cancer cells is irregularly large. They may have abnormal numbers of chromosomes. They fail to experience apoptosis, or irregular cell death. Cancer cells divide indefinitely with the potential to divide limitlessly. They form tumors. They do not respond to cellular growth obstructers. Mutations become more frequent making cancer cells increasingly irregular. Cancer metastasizes, that is invades lymph nodes or blood vessels to inhabit different areas.
Cancer cells have a mutation in one or both of the these genes: proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressing genes. The proto-oncogenes promote the cell cycle and inhibit apoptosis. The genes are modified they are called oncogenes. This is a "better-working" version. The tumor-suppressing genes are, themselves, supressed or totally diffused.
Oncology is the study of cancer. Oncologists study cancer in all its forms. Some different types of cancer are: lung, colon, pancreas, stomach, throat, lymphoma, leukemia, skin, breast and brain cancers.

Lung cancer cells

B. Cancer causes

Though understanding of of cancer's causes are not complete many things have come to be understood. First cancer can be hereditary. If one inherits certain mutated genes, cancer can occur. Another cause is environmental factors. Some of these are radiation, tobacco smoke, pollutants (asbestos, uranium, radon, benzidine, etc.) and viruses.

C. Diagnosis

Early detection of cancer is an important factor to success of treatment. Many ways are being developed and speculated for very early cancer detection. Those we have available now are physical warning signs, regular screening tests, tumor mark tests and genetic tests.
There are seven warning signs that one can determine the possibility of cancer. They were published by the American Cancer Society. The acronym of these signs spells "CAUTION." these are: 1. Change in bowel or bladder habits 2. A sore that does not heal 3. Unusual bleeding or discharge 4. Thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere 5. Indigestion or difficulty swallowing 6. Obvious change in wart or mole
7. Nagging cough or hoarsness

D. Treatment

There are many types of treatment for cancer. Some have been used for a long time with nominal success. Others are simply being tested which will, hopefully, prove successful. The standard types of treatment are radiation, chemotherapy and surgery. Radiation therapy is when radiation (gamma rays, or X-rays) are applied to a specific, cancerous area. Radiation causes disruptions in chromosomes and more easily kill cancer cells, specifically. Surgery is used to remove cancer in situ (non-base penetrating cancer.) Chemotherapy is drug injection that kills cells. The idea is to kill as many cancer cells as possible while maintaining enough normal cells for the body to function.
Some more experimental therapies are immunotherapy (injection of cancer-killing antibodies), p53 gene therapy (genetic expression that catalyzes aptosis in cancer cells) and antiangiogenic drug therapy.

Chemotherapy makes the body weak
and is often marked by body hair loss.

IV. Genetic Inheritance

A. Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotypes are the genes of an organism. Alleles are specific types of traits in a gene. There are two alleles for each genotype and they affect the same trait. A familiar and basic way to look at this is is to chose a specific trait, such as that for freckles. The letter "f" is designated to this trait. Each allele would represent whether the trait would be freckles or no freckles. The allele for freckles is dominant, there fore it would be represented "F" whereas the recessive allele would be represented "f." If a person has freckles their genotype would, then, be "FF" or "Ff." The first form, "FF" is called homozygous dominant. This means that both alleles are the dominant. The second is called heterozygous, meaning both alleles are present. When a genotype is heterozygous the phenotype (expressed trait) is always the dominant. If a person had no freckles, the genotype would "ff. " This genotype is called homozygous recessive.

B. One and two-trait inheritance

When an organism has only one trait, such as "FF" expressed above, the only allele the gamete would pass on is a dominant allele. The same is true if the organism were homozygous recessive. Now, if a heterozygous trait were present half of the gametes would carry the dominant allele, and half would carry the recessive allele, since the chromosomes split in half during meiosis. To figure out the possibility of a trait in offspring one would, simply, make a punnett square. This square is divided into four spaces with the alleles of one parent on the top and the alleles of another parent on the side. Combining each set of alleles in the corresponding square gives the possible outcomes of an offspring. When an offspring is heterozygous the individual is a monohybrid, because one trait is hybrid. When two traits are part of the two homologous chromosomes in meiosis1 there become four allele setups (i.e. widow's peak: W, or w, short fingers: S of s: possibilities WS, Ws, wS, ws.) These can be lined the same way on a punnett square, but instead of having four areas of possibility and probability, there are now sixteen!If an offspring is heterozygous in both traits they are a dihybrid.

A punnett square where "A" or "a" represents
an allele of a trait.

Most disorders are autosomal (not pertaining to sex chromosomes.) Disorder traits are passed on the same way as other genotypes. If a disorder is dominant any autosomal dominant of heterozygous carrier will be affected by it. If it is a recessive disorder than only those carrying autosomal recessive genotypes will be affected by it. If the disorder is recessive a child may carry a disorder that neither parent has. If the disorder is dominant than the child with it will virtually have to have a parent with it. However the child may not if the parent or parents do.There are many autosomal genetic disorders. Some recessive ones are Tay-Sachs disease, cystic fibrosis and sickle cell disease. Some dominant disorders are Marfan syndrome and Huntington disease.

C. When it's more than that

There are some traits that are controlled by multiple sets of alleles. These are called polygenic traits. Polygenes are often subject to the environment. Whenever large groups of people are surveyed for phenotypes of polygenes, the trend shows a belly type curve. Since dominant alleles will most likely be found in most of these people and because of environmental effects there will be a continual distribution.
Some phenotypes will have incomplete dominance or codominance. That means that neither trait takes dominance and a mixed phenotype shows up. Such as a wavy haired child coming from parents of which one has straight hair and the other curly. Some disorders act in this way.

D. Sex-Linked Inheritance

Most traits are autosomal, since 22 of the 23 chromosome pairs are autosomes. However, a few disorder are sex-linked, meaning they occur on the X or Y chromosome. Very few genes are on the Y chromosome (which, usually, only men have.) Most sex-linked traits, therefore, come from the X chromosome. Since this is true traits can be passed to either offspring from either parent.
The same is true for the sex-linked disorders. When int is an X-linked recessive disorder it is usually expressed more often in males than in females. That is because when an X-linked disorder is recessive the male only receives the recessive trait. The Y chromosome doesn't have an allele for it. Some of these are color blindness, muscular dystrophy and hemophilia.

Hemophilia, an X-linked recessive disorder
makes carriers susceptible to extensive
bleeding since they lake adequate
blood clotting proteins.

"IBM Research."http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research_projects.nsf/pages/bluegene.index.html

"tomatoes."http://www.american.edu/TED/images4/tomatoes.jpg

"Lung cancer."http://www.scienceclarified.com/scitech/images/lsbv_0001_0001_0_img0030.jpg

"Christi12"http://www.christithomas.com/images/MVC-003F15.jpg, used with permission.

Lab Project 1: Cell Model

2008-02-14T21:10:00.000-08:00

Here is a model of a functioning animal cell using simple household, office and construction supplies. Each product was handpicked for its resemblance to portrayal of organelles in in various cell illustrations and models. Here is a list of organelles. The numbers correspond to the numbers next to each item in the photo to the right. 1. Cell Membrane (wire and cloth basket) 2. cytoplasm (window sealer/packing straw) 3. Nucleus (tennis ball) nuclear pores (black spots on ball) 4. nucleolus, chromatin (orange cap, black space in ball) 5. mitochondria (the one represented here is different from the one I ended up using, which is a wooden carrot) 6. one of three chromosome pairs used in sub model (metal braces)7. ribosomes (hole-punched paper) 8. Golgi apparatus (taped rubber bands) 9. Endoplasmic reticulum (linked paper clips) 10. vesicles (red crayon. Lysosomes will later be shown as blue crayons with straw at center to represent digesting bacteria.) The flagellum will be represented as a cut hair tie.

Here is the nucleus inside the cell.Its function is the production of DNA The membrane is the wire and mesh basket and the straw and sealer(clear goo) is the cytoplasm. The yellow outer of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. The shiny orange cap is the nucleolus and the black in represents the chromatin. The black spots on the outside of the tennis ball (or shall I say nucleus) are nuclear pores through which ribosomes and mRNA enter and exit the nucleus.

The paper clips, here, represent the ER (endoplasmic reticulum.) Its function is to put proteins to use. This is also where proteins fold. Glucose and other products are made there.The green dots are ribosomes. They are key to amino acid production. When found on the ER that ER is called rough ER. The ER lacking ribosomes is the smooth ER.

The orange ellipse in the photo below is the mitochondria. This is where ATP (fuel of cellular energy) is produced. The fused bands is the Golgi apparatus. These organelles receive vesicles with particles for construction of important molecules and sends vesicles out to secrete waste. The vesicles are the red cylinders. When they collect materials from outside the cell, it is called endocytosis. When they excrete materials it is called ectocytosis.

The blue cylinders are lysosomes. They digest bacteria (little straw in cylinder) to use particles or secrete them.

The "tail" here is the flagellum. Its function is cellular movement. Some cells have flagella. Others use cilia for movement and other functions.

Here is the complete, working cell. Now Let's take a look at what goes on in DNA production.

This is a paired chromosome ( the two metal braces) in the nucleus. Each human cell has 46 chromosomes. When a cell is ready to reproduce it copies each chromosome. They are then paired, like so. The colored wires represent the DNA that chromosomes are made up of. DNA is twisted in a "double helix" pattern. The rungs are genetic code. They are made up of four base units. When DNA is reproduced it, first, splits as shown above. Each side, then connects with a copy that has been made.

When The base units for DNA (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine) and other DNA products are needed mRNAs (messengers) take the information to ribosomes. There the information is read and tRNAs (transmitters) are put to use to make the necessary materials. The red spiral is an mRNA being read by the ribosome (green dot) the orange spirals are tRNA entering and leaving the ribosome.

It took hours to put together a model of the microscopic cell. It doesn't, of course, function as a live cell does. Cells are amazingly intricate. In the time it took me to make this model, millions of cells were born in my body. Millions of cells went about their usual business to keep me functioning normally. Millions of cells carried out tasks with such complicated instructions that it would make a city planner's head spin. There is, perhaps, much we can learn from the little cell. It functions smoothly. It works efficiently. It works together with other cells in great harmony. It identifies problems and takes care of them promptly. When a problem does arise, however, the results can be disastrous (cancer, disease.) If we might learn to take the efficiency and learn from the mistake of "bad cell multiplication" who knows what we might accomplish.

PS: for more information and photos on mitosis contact me at hexinduction@yahoo.com
Post Post Script.: It turns out today (2/17) I was able to use my cell model to teach a friend's young children about cells. They were captivated by the colors. NOTE: teach kids with COLORS!!! haha.

Genetics and Flying Things: LAB

2008-02-12T14:41:00.001-08:00

Genes are our unit of inheritance, well, physically so to speak. Offspring receive genes from the parent(s) which insures the parents' mark be carried on in posterity. But how does it all work? What are in genes? Which genes do offspring exhibit?
The genes of a particular trait in an organism are the genotype. Genotypes are the combination of traits appearing from the parents. One characteristic of each parent will appear in the genotype. The individual characteristics are called alleles. For example, the genotype for horns on our beloved dragon were to have double horns.A double horn trait is represented by H while a single horn trait is represented by h. But, just because the phenotype (or observable trait of the genotype) is double horns does not mean that the genotype of the dragon is HH. In actuality the genotype was Hh with double horns being the dominant trait (that which will appear when present) and single horn being the recessive trait (that which will only appear when two recessive traits are present). We call the genotype of our dragon heterozygous. A homozygous genotype will have the phenotype of whichever alleles are represented. If our dragon's phenotype had been a single horn that the genotype would have been hh. We call this homozygous recessive.
Our fruit flies are a perfect example of this. Both of the parent flies had the phenotype for long wings. However, both of them had a long-wing genotype that was heterozygous. The punnet square shows the possible outcomes of any offspring. Of course, there was only the possibility of two phenotypes: long wings and short wings. However, there were three possible genotypes. Since both parents parents were heterozygous there was 1/4 possibility the offspring would be either homozygous dominant(long-winged) or homozygous recessive(short-winged). The other half possibility, 1/2 chance was that the posterity would be heterozygous, and therefore long-winged.
Chromosomes are certainly vital to evolution and mutations are passed at the genetic level. It is interesting that we would study a punnett activity on fruit flies, since they have been the subject of practical evolutionary studies for 100 years now. Since fruit flies have a generational period of 11-12 days it would be easy to see how mutations could transform a species in a limited amount of time. For example, humans have been around for a little over one million years, according to general scientific thought. The experiments on fruit flies have well exceeded that one million years, translated. The results? The thousands of mutations imposed, if put into one single fly, would not resemble anything of a new species. Most of these mutated flies die out or, more often, revert back to the wild type, as if there was some type of genetic fail safe!!! Then again, I am sure they just evolved the fail safe, so they would never have to change species again.
This was, certainly, a very fun lab. Why I didn't do this in junior high and high school, I am not sure. Now I know who to blame for my small hands. DAD!!!

Sources:

"Elusive Icons of Evolution What do Darwin's finches and the four-winged fruit fly really tell us?"
Jonathan Wellshttp://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/nhmag.html

Compendium 1: The Story, So Far.

2008-02-07T19:21:00.000-08:00

I. From the beginning

A. Biotic checklist
1. The organization of systems
2.Reproduction
3. Growth
4. Homeostasis
5. Stimulus

B. Where do we fit in?
1. Ancestry: biological and cultural
3. Threatening Alterations

C. Why science?
1. Concepts: Theory's role
2. Modus Operandi
3. Modus Operandi II: The controlled Study
4. But, I heard it on the internet!

D. Evaluation

E. What does this mean to us?

II. The nitty gritty

A. Elementary and so forth
1. Elements
2. Atoms
3. What's the difference?
4.Molecules: They really bonded

B. Water; You made it all possible
1. Hydrogen bond
2. What water is like
3. The pH scale

C. Organic Molecules
1. Carbs
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids

III. It Ain't What you're buying, It's What You're Cell-ing.

A. The cell
1.Cell theory
2. The size of a cell
3. Cell structure

B. Cell organization

C. Open the gates: cell membranes

D. Protein Factory
1. Nucleus
2. Endomembrane System

E. Shape and Movement

F. Mitochondria
1. Cellular respiration
. Fermentation

IV. The Body

A. Types of Tissue

B. Cell Junctions

C. The Skin and Much More

D. Organ Systems

E. Homeostasis

I. From The Beginning

A. The Biotic Checklist

Life is all around us. There is no escaping that. Well, there is. It is called death. But, for a living creature there is no way to escape this world that is teeming with life. There are many different types of life forms, millions. Though, there are many different types of life and they vary greatly, there are a few things that all living have in common. For example: all living things use external energy, React to stimuli, whether internal or external, Develop through different stages as they grow, Maintain a relatively standard internal set of conditions and reproduce offspring of their own kind. 1 With unifying factors one can see that all life, no matter how different, has come from one origin and share very common factors.

1. The organization of systems

There is a system of structures that make up the organic world we live in. The smallest of these is the atom. It is the building block of all elements. Made up of electrons, protons and neutrons, the grouping of of two or atoms makes a molecule. Molecules, when grouped together form cells. Cells are the most basic unit of an organism. Some organisms may only be made of a single cell. Humans are made up of trillions of them. Cells group with other cells of the same kind to form tissue. They will, naturally, perform a common function. An organ is made up of tissue which functions in a concise manner. When different organs work together this is called an organ system. An organism often contains these complex systems, though simpler organism do not need these systems. The Co-inhabitance of many organisms of the same kind is called a population. When populations of different kinds live together they live in a community. The community in conjunction with the elements of the environment make up an ecosystem. All the ecosystems of the earth combined are the biosphere.

2. Reproduction

Cells that are, came from cells that were before them. Genes, or the "work plans" so to speak of the organism to be, are copied to be passed on to the posterity. DNA is the name of this code. We will learn more about DNA later on. A male of the species will contribute his DNA in sperm. Sperm fertilizes the egg of the female, which contains the female genes needed to be passed on to the offspring.

This image shows chromosomes, DNA and
genes, all integral to reproduction.

3. Growth

All living things grow and go through a series of changes. They are ever evolving from conception until death. Plants go from being seeds to being full grown grasses, shrubs, or trees. Animals begin as fertilized eggs and develop through various stages and the former resembles nothing of the adult species. This is true of every organism.

4. Homeostasis

The American Heritage Science Dictionary describes homeostasis as "The tendency of an organism or cell to regulate its internal conditions, such as the chemical composition of its body fluids, so as to maintain health and functioning, regardless of outside conditions. The organism or cell maintains homeostasis by monitoring its internal conditions and responding appropriately when these conditions deviate from their optimal state. The maintenance of a steady body temperature in warm-blooded animals is an example of homeostasis. In human beings, the homeostatic regulation of body temperature involves such mechanisms as sweating when the internal temperature becomes excessive and shivering to produce heat, as well as the generation of heat through metabolic processes when the internal temperature falls too low. "
Homeostasis is certainly true of higher animals and other organisms as well. It is a unique and wonderful governing phenomena.

5. Stimulus

Dictionary.com defines stimulus as, "something that excites an organism or part to functional activity." As organisms, we react to stimuli constantly. This is critical to the maintaining of homeostasis. Whether it is running from a potentially frightening situation, shivering when it is cold or retreating a finger after a paper cut, organisms, and higher animals, especially will always respond to the stimuli of the environment.

B. Where Do We Fit In?

All living creatures are biotic. You and I are as biotic as a bacteria or a ficus. However, there are classifications for organisms. The three major biotic domains are Archaea, Eubacteria and Eukarya, according to Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Within the domain Eukarya are four kingdoms, of which The animal kingdom is where humans are found. They are vertebrates who are the most highly developed of the mammals.

1. Ancestry: biological and cultural

Humans have a biological ancestry that makes them part of the living world. As such humans are active members of not only a community but of many ecosystems and, ultimately, the biosphere. We get timber from forested ecosystems. Fresh water ecosystems provide us with drinking water. The plains and other areas are ideal for farming. We exist in and live from the biosphere that we are found in.

However, humans have more than just a biological ancestry. They also have a history of culture. Culture is an advanced notion, unique only to humans. Culture is the idea that governs the behavior, art, language and expressed communications of a specific locale of people. The mere fact that we read this review as a matter of science is the product of cultural.

2. Threatening Alterations

There is no doubt that human activity alters our ecosystems. The more "developed" we become, the more organisms are lost in the destruction of ecosystems. Humans, therefore, as the most advanced of organisms have a responsibility to balance our activity to preserve the earth we live on, before we are responsible for the greatest extinction in earth's history.

C. Why Science?

"sci·ence [sahy-uhns] –noun

1.	a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws: the mathematical sciences.

2.	systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation.

3.	any of the branches of natural or physical science.

4.	systematized knowledge in general.

5.	knowledge, as of facts or principles; knowledge gained by systematic study."

1. Concet: Theory's Role

Science is quite interesting. It is basically of study of examinations in order to understand the world in which we live. Scientists put together theories based on observation. Some theories become laws. Some become principles: generally, well accepted theories. Some theories will have to, realistically, stay theories as they cannot be disproved, but cannot be well proved.

2. Modus Operandi

Scientific information comes from scientific testing. To ensure quality and accuracy, certain procedures must followed and steps must be taken. These steps are referred to as the Scientific Method. First a scientist will make an observation. From that observation the scientist will formulate a hypothesis, or educated guess, as to the outcome of an experiment. Then the scietist will perform tests, or experiments to determine the outcome, or conclusion. The conclusion will either affirm or disprove the hypothesis. This information will, then, go to support a certain theory.

3. But, I Heard It On the Internet!

There are very good places to get scientific information. Scientific journals would, naturally, be the most obvious choice. The information is gathered under well-tested circumstances. Many government or institutional websites offer very accurate information. However, there are many websites that cannot be trusted for scientific, or any other, information. It is very important to find substantial proof for scientific claims made on non-institutional websites.

D. Evaluation
There is a lot of information given in a study to support the findings. However, some of the information be error values and other such swaying information. It is very important, therefore to read an entire study and not just the abstract and conclusion of a study. The methods, the studies and the statistics will give the complete picture of a study.

E. What Does This Mean for Us?

Science is the one observationally affirming way to know the world around us. As we apply science to technology we are able to improve our world. However, we also have the ability to do irreversible harm to our environments. If we, as humans believe there is a reason to preserve our biosphere, it is the only way to drive us to take responsibility for the knowledge and technology we possess. It is the only way we can assume responsibility to preserve those endangered elements of our earth.

II. The Nitty Gritty

A. Elementary and So Forth

there are millions, trillions and much more atoms in our bodies, much more, the world around us. The building blocks of everything are small. Yet smaller still is matter as a partial unit. It can be described as being much larger, too. This can be simple parts of atoms or can be described as you are matter, or the Pacific Ocean is matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.

1. Elements

Dictionary.com defines an element as, "Chemistry. one of a class of substances that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means." There are only 92 elements that make up our natural universe, that we know of. Elements are charted on the periodic table. This shows the atomic weight, atomic number and symbol of each element.

2. Atoms

According to "Human Biology" "An atom is the smallest unit of an element that still retains the chemical and physical properties of the element." A hydrogen atom is the smallest unit of the element hydrogen. Atoms have a nucleus that contains the protons and neutrons. Circling this nucleus are the electrons. Atoms tend to have a balanced number of electrons, protons and neutrons.

3. What's the difference?

Isotopes are atoms with differing numbers of neutrons. So one elemental atom can actually have differing types within the same element.

4. Molecules: They really bonded

Molecules are the result of the bonding of atoms to one another. If nitrogen atoms bond together they will for nitrogen gas. When two different types of atoms bond together they form compounds. Water is a compound. It is made up of Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms. When oppositely charged atoms are attracted to each other this is called an ionic bond. When Atoms share electrons it forms a covalent bond.

B. Water, you made it all possible

Without water, we would not have life, at least not as we know it. Water is crucial to all living things on earth. It makes up approximately 70% of all living organisms.

1. Hydrogen bond

A hydrogen bond is very much like an ionic bond. Hydrogen, which is somewhat positively charged, due to the proximity of electrons to the oxygen is attracted to other oxygen molecules, which are lightly negative. The resulting effect is a weak bond, consequently called a hydrogen bond.

2. What water is like

Water has different properties in different environments that are unique. Most light-molecule compounds are gases at room temperature. Water is unique in that it is a liquid. This is important to our survival. It takes a temperature of Fahrenheit 212 or 100 Celsius to make water into vapor, or gas. Water, when frozen, is actually less dense than liquid water. This helps in organism flotation in water as well as insulating frozen bodies of water in the winter. Some compounds dissolve in water, because of the ionic attraction. Hydrophilic molecules are those that share this attraction making water solutions possible.

When below F 32 water becomes the solid, ice.

3. The pH scale

When water molecules break up it hydrogen breaking from the hydroxide (one hydrogen and one oxygen.) When liquids contain more of the hydrogen in the solution than hydroxide this solution is acidic. When the solution has more hydroxide that hydrogen it is a base. The pH scale shows The balance of these solutions in relation to pure water (H2O.) Bleach, ammonia and saltwater are all basic solutions. While coffee, beer and citrus juices are all acidic.

C. Organic Molecules

There are four different types of organic molecules. Organic molecules are those that consist of some carbon and hydrogen. The four different types are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

1. Carbs

Carbohydrates are very important molecules. They are specifically good for energy. All Carbohydrates are made of hydrogen, hydroxide and carbon. Simple carbohydrates are those that contain less than seven carbon atoms. These are often referred to as simple sugars, or monosaccharides. Common simple sugars are glucose and fructose. These are both hexoses, which means they contain six (hex) carbon atoms.
Complex carbohydrates are called polysaccharides (poly=many, saccharide=sugar.) These are carbohydrates made up of multiple linked glucoses. Starch is a particular polysaccharide. It is found quite frequently in plants, especially those that we eat. Potatoes, corn and wheat are all foods high in starch. Glycogen is another complex carb found in these foods. There are some carbohydrates found in plants that are not readily digestible by animals. Carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are beneficial in that while the body cannot break them down they pass through the system as fiber. Fibers help keep cholesterol from being absorbed and can also help to keep one regular.

2. Lipids

Lipids are high in carbon and hydrogen levels, but contain very little oxygen. This makes them practically indissoluble in water. They carry more energy than other organic molecules. The first major type of lipids are the oils and fats. Fats are lipids found in animals and oils are found in plats. They both are excellent energy storage units. Fats and oils are made from the combination of fatty acids and glycerol. These are often referred to as triglycerides. Fatty acids always with a grouping of COOH. There are saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fats play there part in cardiovascular problems because it causes solid lipids to clog blood vessels. Trans fatty acids are unsaturated fats that have been partially hydrogenated to make them slightly solid.
Phospholipids are those lipids that contain a polar phosphate chain. These tend to make up cell membranes as their polarized structure makes a good separation from water.
Steroids are lipids that have a carbon base with four carbon rings attached. Cholesterol makes these. Sex hormones are steroids.

3. Proteins

Proteins are very important to organisms from single cells to human beings. They are versatile and serve many different functions. They are used in transporting oxygen. These proteins are hemoglobin. They are elemental in muscle building which is important to motion and agility. Most hormones are proteins. These are metabolic messengers. Proteins are used to aid the bodies defense against harmful antigens. They are structural. Keratin is a protein that makes collagen, a fibrous substance that forms ligaments and skin.
The subunit of protein molecules is the amino acid. Amino acid contain the COOH branch, but also contain nitrogen. The nitrogen ends up somewhat positively charged as the electrons circle the oxygen molecules. This makes an attraction between amino acids called a peptide bond. Different proteins differ in structure and there are at least three levels of structures of proteins. Proteins, in order to be useful must "fold" themselves in certain ways to be used properly. How the do this is still quite unknown at this time, but they do, remarkably. When folds itself incorrectly, many things can go wrong. Misfolded proteins are linked to many diseases and cancer.

IBM's "Blue Gene" supercomputer
will test protein folding to find out
how it's done.

4. Nucleic Acids

There are two kinds of nucleic acids, both absolutely fundamental to the perpetuation of life. These are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA's main function is to keep strict gene patterns for reproduction. RNA is the messenger that convey's the code of the DNA. The bases for the genetic code which are found in DNA are adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. RNA's bases are the same except that uracil fits in the place where thymine would in DNA. Nucleotides(made up of phosphate, pentose and nitrogen) create the strands from which the bases connect. RNA is single stranded and DNA has a double helix structure. Hydrogen bonds between the bases hold the strands together.

III. It Ain't What You're Buying, It's What You're Cell-ing

A. Cells

Cells are the building block of life. Every organism is made up of cells. Some may only be a single cell. Other organisms, such as humans, are made up of trillions of cells. In fact human have about 5 million red blood cells in just one ml of blood!

1. Cell theory

The cell theory states much of the above statements. It states that, "A cell is the basic unit of life. All living things are made up of cells." and, "New cells arise only from preexisting cells."

2. Cell size

Cells tend to be about 100 micrometers in diameter. Some are smaller. Some are much larger, such as certain eggs, which are visible to the human eye. The smallness of a cell is important because a large cell would take much more energy to gain nutrients and expels waste. That is why, even in larger cells, division occurs without growth, so that cells become smaller and smaller, until they are quite manageable.
B. Cell organization

There are two different types of cells. The simplest is the prokaryotic cell. These are cells with no nucleus. Prokaryotic organisms are single-celled and the two types of them are bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic cells do have a nucleus which is a membraned center where DNA is produced. Both types of cells have cell membranes, which is regulatory gate of what come in and leaves the cell. They both also have cytoplasm and organelles.
That is where similarities end between the two different types of cells. Within the Eukaryotic placement is the division of the cells of different kingdoms. The two largest are the animal cell and the plant cell. They differ in as few ways. For example, plant cells contain chloroplast, an organelle that makes photosynthesis possible.
Cells are fascinating and incredibly complex.

A cutaway model of a eukaryotic cell

C. Open the gates: cell membrane

All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. This membrane is made of phospholipids which, as we learned, have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. This membrane is what holds a cell together. It also determines what ions and molecules can enter the cell and which ones will leave the cell. Diffusion is one of the methods of entrance for molecules. Diffusion is the the movement of molecules from more populated to less populated areas. When When a molecule moves across the membrane it will go to where those molecules are less concentrated. Osmosis is diffusion of water molecules. In facilitated transport molecules that would not otherwise diffuse across the membrane are brought by protein carriers. Active transport is the facilitated transport of a molecule from lowest concentration to highest. This requires cellular energy which comes from the breakdown of ATP. The protein carriers are referred to as pumps, because they pump the molecule against their designated "flow."
The membrane is also crucial in the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis. During endocytosis forms a pouch that takes in materials from the outside of the cell. The three major types of endocytosis are phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis. Whe materials are to be secreted in the same fashion. The process is called exocytosis.

D. Protein Factory

The nucleus of the cell is really the central "protein factory." Though there are other organelles involved

1. Nucleus

DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell. It is the most prominently noticeable feature of the cell. It is sealed with a membrane called the nuclear envelope. It is filled with a substance called nucleoplasm which is different than cytoplasm. Just outside the nuclear envelope are the endoplasmic reticulum. On the nuclear envelope are pores that let ribomal subunits and proteins in and out. Attached to the rough Endoplasmic reticulum are some of the ribosomes.

2. Endomembrane system

The endomembrance system is the name given to the system including the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum and vesicles. The Golgi apparatus is the series of saccules that takes in vesicles. These vesicles contain protein or lipids that will be changed. The vesicles then carry out waste particles or take their contents to the endoplasmic reticulum. On the rough endoplasmic reticulum are ribosomes that make proteins. Then the proteins enter the ER where they are modified. The smooth ER's job is to manufacture lipids. Lysosomes are one of the products of the Golgi apparatus. Their job is to digest particles, whether internal or external.

E. Shape and movement

Cytoplasm has a fibrous "skeleton" called the cytoskeleton. It is made up of the proteins of microtubules, Actin filaments and Intermediate filaments. Different. Cells have different types of movement. Some, such as sperm cells, use a flagellum. Others, such as egg cells, use cilia to move.

F. Mitochondria

Mitochondria are where the cell converts glucose energy into the chemical energy, ATP. Mitochondria have a maze-like shape inside containing enzymes to breakdown glucose.

1. Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is a series of reactions, using different enzymes. It is so called be cause the mitochaondria uses oxygen in the process and gives off carbon monoxide. A specific enzyme must perform its reaction on a specific substrate, otherwise the process will not be complete. Coenzymes are molecules that assist the enzyme. They may give or take atoms to make the reaction complete.

2. Fermentation

Fermentation, unlike cellular respiration, needs no oxygen. However it does use lactate and pyruvate is converted to lactate for the fermentation process. Fermentation should not occur as often as cellular respiration, because the amount of lactate produced is unhealthy. It can even be fatal when extended.

IV. The Body

The body is full of many different systems. There are different tissues. These different tissues, of course, form different organs.

A. Types of Tissues

Tissue is made of cells of the same type that will perform the same tasks. There are four major types of tissue. These are the: connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue and epithelial tissue. Connective tissue are made up of one of three types of protein fibers. Collagen fibers make a flexible tissue. Reticular fibers are flexible, but finer than collagen. Elastic fiber has a greater elasticity than collagen, but is weaker. The different connective tissues are cartilage, bone, blood and lymph. Muscular Tissue is made of muscle fiber tissue. It's main function is movement. The different types of muscle are skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. Nerve tissue is made of neurons and their nutrient supplier, neuroglia. The three parts of a neuron are the dendrites, the cell body and an axon.The main function of nervous tissue is communication. It is important to sensory understanding, processing that sensory data and providing the proper physical response. Epithelia tissue is protective and covers organs and surfaces (i.e. epidermis.)There are simple epithelia, which consist of only one layer of cells. Stratified epithelia, as the name implies, consist of layers of cells piled on top of each other with only the bottom layer touching the basement membrane. Some epithelia, such as sweat glands, have the function of secretion. These are called glandular epithelia.

B. Cell Junctions

Many cells in a tissue, especially epithelial, are held together by cell junctions. These junctions consist of joining of plasma membranes in three different ways:Tight junctions, adhesion junctions and gap junctions.

C. The skin and much more

In order to have an organ different types of tissue must work together. To have an organ system, different types of organs must work together. The skin has many organs and, thusly, tissue working together. It is referred to as the integumentary system. Skin has many jobs. It is protective, regulatory, productive and sensory. The skin has two layers: the epidermis/dermis and the subcutaneous layer. Epidermis is made up of many stratified tissue. The outermost layer is dead and keratinized. This makes the outer layer of skin waterproof. Dermis is below the epidermis. It contains most of the sensory receptors, which recognize pressure, hot, cold, pain and touch of a sexual nature. The subcutaneous layer is made, in part, of adipose tissue, which stores fat. This insulates the body. The many other organs found in the skin are: nails, hair follicles, oil glands and sweat glands.

A section of the integumentary system.

D. Organ systems

The integumentary system is just one of many in the body. The cardiovascular system is the blood circulation system. Lymphatic and immune systems control fluids, absorb fat and defend the body against infectious sicknesses. The digestive system absorbs nutrients in food and dispels the waste. The respiratory system maintains and regulates breathing. The urinary system dispels waste and controls pH balance in the body. The skeletal system supports and protects the body. The muscular sytem is responsible for movement. The nervous system receives, processes and reacts to sensory input. Endocrine systems produce hormones and regulate metabolism. The reproductive system produces sex hormones and produces and facilitates everything necessary to reproduction.

E. Homeostasis

We discussed, in the first chapter, that homeostasis is the maintenance of the body to keep internal conditions constant and stable. The endocrine and nervous systems are most important to maintaining homeostasis in the body. The nervous system perceives and responds to changes in the body. The endocrine system produces hormones that are integral to homeostasis, especially when internal changes occur. The two types of feedback are negative and positive. Negative feedback says something is not going right and needs to change. It is the most common function and helps maintain healthy glucose levels. Positive feedback tells the body to continue with a particular function or to aid a particular function.

homeostasis. Dictionary.com. The American Heritage® Science Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/homeostasis (accessed: February 09, 2008).

"stimulus." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Feb. 2008. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/stimulus>.

Bacteria. Reference.com. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. http://www.reference.com/browse/columbia/bacteria (accessed: February 09, 2008).

"science." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Feb. 2008. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/science>.

"element." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 09 Feb. 2008.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/element>.

"folding @ home" http://folding.stanford.edu/>.

"Ask a Scientist: Human Cell Count" http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/mole00/mole00140.htm

Microscope Lab

2008-01-31T15:02:00.000-08:00

The Microscope

The microscope is an invaluable tool to a biologist. Why, you might ask? Microscopes, of course, are tools that magnify minute objects that could not otherwise be seen or well defined to the naked eye. There are a few different types of microscopes. The major types are the electron microscope, (1.e. the scanning electron microscope or the transmission electron microscope.) the scanning probe microscope (which generates images based on touch-sensitive contour) and the scanning acoustic microsope (which uses sound vibrations.1)However, the most common type of microscope is the optical microscope. These microscopes use light concentrated through lenses to magnify an object. The two types of optical microscopes are the dissection and the compound. The latter is the one I have learned to use today.

The compound: a brief history

In 1595 in Middleburg, Holland lenses were placed at either end of a simple middle tube. Thus, the compound microscope was born. Who actually created it is a debatable mystery. It is accredited to Zacharias Janssen. However, when this first microscope was invented Zacharias was very young and for this reason it is thought that his father, Hans, actually invented the compound microscope. Both were eyeglass makers by trade and it wasn't long before Zacharias began production on the microscope.

This primitive form of the microscope was later improved upon by Robert Hooke, a Brittish scientist and inventor. Through a slightly more powerful microscope, Hooke viewed the microscopic structure of a cork and, thus, coined the term "cells" describing the porous pockets in the cork. This was published in "Micrographia" in 1665. This publication inspired a vast improvement on microscopes and the discovery of microscopic organisms living in water. These were made by Anton Van Leeunwenhoek only 9 years later!

Leeunwenhoek first dealt with magnification when improving on magnifying glasses that were used in the dry goods store that he worked in. After producing the finest lenses of his time, he put them to work in building microscopes. These became known as the first practical microscopes. With them he not only saw microscopic life in water, but also blood corpuscles in circulation and bacteria.

Since then the compound microscope has made leaps and bounds, but the principle is the same, one that we have used for 400 years.

The compound microscope, practically speaking

There are many parts of the microscope to become familiar with in order to operate it. The eyepiece and body tube are, naturally, what you look through to observe an object. The stage is where the specimen sits. The specimen in viewe through the opening on the stage called the aperture. It is held in place by the stage clips. The course focus is just that. It moves the stage at great intervals. The fine focus is more exact. The light source will illuminate the specimen. The diaphragm is for adjusting the amount of light that comes to the specimen. The stage controls or x and y knobs move the stage horizontally to center the specimen. The nosepiece holds the objective lenses and makes them rotatable. The objective lenes determine how much magnification will be used for a viewing a specimen. With a clear knowledge of these one can begin to observe microscopic specimens

Using the microscope simulator I was able to learn to use all of these properly. I also learned how to adjust the oculars (eyepiece for viewing) so that the specimen could be properly observed. When observing a specimen at varying magnifications there are naturally going to be some modifications of focus and lighting. It seems to me that the larger an object is magnified, the more light it needs. This is taken care of by opening, more, the diaphragm. The reverse is true for less magnified object. The image to the right shows a cheek smear sample at 40x magnification. The iris diaphragm is opened just about half way. For an object maginified 100x the diaphragm on the virtual microscope is fully open. From there you can fine tune the focus with, of course, the fine focus to get the best view of a specimen that you can.

If only: the online plight

Studying human biology online has it's obvious drawbacks. The first one I have encountered was that I won't be using a real microscope to often, if ever, for this course. It was, still, a very valuable lesson to be learned. I am glad that I now know how to use the compound microscope and have indulged my historical fancy with a brief lesson in where the microscope came from. An invaluable tool, to be certain, I cannot wait until my studies bring me to the microscope and the rush of discovery.

sources: 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope#Optical_microscopes

2. http://www.southwestschools.org/jsfaculty/Microscopes/index.html

3. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blroberthooke.htm

4. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blroberthooke.htm

induction introduction [try me (trial)]

2008-01-27T19:38:00.000-08:00

Name: Well, my family name is Rose. My christian name is William Jr. My second given name is Joseph. At a formal call I would be referred to as William Joseph Rose Jr. Any other time I would hope to be called Billy.

Favorite Artist: It always surprises me when people find favorites a normal and easy topic to tackle. I have no favorite artist (or food, or musician, or color for that matter.) I do like many, more than others, though. My favorite contemporary artists are Anthony Lister and Francis Vallejo (francisvallejo.blogspot.com.) My favorite "modern" artists are Robert Rauschenberg and Duchamp (though his readymades were awful.) My favorite turn-of-the-century artists are Klimt and Schiele. My favorite painter, who paved the way for such artists, is Van Gogh. My favorite reformation painter is Rembrandt. Lastly, my favorite mustache on an artist was Dali's.

Why this Class?: I must admit the more embarassing first. I have to take biology. I say the second, hoping I overstep no bounds; I love the wonder of God's highest creation. It's systems can be easily compared with that of other organisms to varying degrees, depending on the context. Yet we study it with special emphasis at times. More often than not it is for medicinal and other scientific benefits. However, I want to look at these systems, remembering that humans are truly unique as animals, socially, mentally and spiritually.

Goals: I can't say they are all clear now. The most certain is that I pass this class with a decent grade. Secondly, I would love to be slightly more in step with a teacher friend of mine when he rattles off the wonders of the human body. From there, I don't know, but I love to learn.

Three interesting things: I'm young and I have a had a fairly uneventful life. I'm reaching for interesting here, so be kind. I spent the past six months living in a tent on the island of Kauai. There I was building, and later attending, a bible college campus on the east side. I have a once-famous second cousin. His name is Tom Selleck. My great uncle, Frank Condon, was the first person to ride a buffalo [bison] in the rodeo.

Oh, yes. I am the poor fellow on your right in the above photo.