Saturday, March 22, 2008

No Easy Answer: What to Eat

Jesus once said, "It is not what goes into the mouth of a man that defiles him, but what comes out of his mouth." (Matthew 15:11) Naturally I would have to take this quite out of context to argue with him. We are at an interesting time in history. Food is available for anyone patient enough to stand in front of the microwave for one minute. It's convenience base is painfully obvious in today's drive-through prominence. Giant fruits abound at the supermarket, fruit whose size would have been rare in fairly rich soil. An entree at a restaurant is really gonna cost you, but then again you are going to get at least twice as much food as you actually need.
The price paid by such wonders of modern convenience are plenty and severe. Obesity runs rampant. Heart disease is common place. There is little market for small time farmers. We don't really have any idea where our food comes from. Colon cancer is much more prominent than it used to be.
There is a lot in this topic to be provided in one essay. This is certainly a good idea for a more formal essay, because there is so much material to cover. The fact is even the "evil" side of fast food culture has its benefits in today's society. There is a heavy emphasis on schedules and jam-packed days in our culture today. While European countries, like Spain, maintain an emphasis on a large, slow prepared and slowly consumed dinner, most of the rest of the world has said goodbye to this practice. There is no time in today's culture for this. Coincidently, as of October 2007, Spain was the "poorest" 1st world country. I certainly couldn't blame this on the nation's dinner habits, but it is something to consider.
Fast food is convenient in our demanding culture. If there were no drive-through windows, most people would starve, because there is hardly any time to eat lunch, or prepare it in advance in a daily work schedule. With the high percentage of both single, working parents and families where both parents work, its easy to see why there is little time for food prep. One could spend more time cooking, but then life might become: wake, work, eat and sleep. It's a very depressing cycle to live for.
As stated above, however, its affects have been devastating. Advances in science and technology have led to excessive use of chemicals for shelf life and taste. These things are not normal for the body to ingest and some affects have been seen. Others are yet to be known.
Another thing to consider is the economic motive for todays fast foods, frozen foods and GMOs. Most companies who produce these products are rather large companies. Their motive has not necessarily been health, but profit. These foods can be produced cheaply and have a quick turnover. This equals big bucks. Their foods can be sold for much cheaper than whole foods and organic foods which are mainly produced by smaller farms and local growers. This harms the expansion of small growers and can even move them out of business.
There has been a refreshing, renewed interest in whole and organic foods. It seems bigger now than it did even five years ago and much more than it did ten years ago. This demand has, thankfully, put the pressure on big foods to produce more natural and organic products. Even so these products are cheaper than the small growers. If big food dominates the organic and natural food market then they make the rules. It seems it may become a cycle. With less small competition the big companies may bring back cheap production methods and products until demands call for a change again.
I think it is better to never find out the effects of growth hormones than to find out they are no good. There is a natural order. The earth, as we know it (naturally) has brought us some wonderful food. Sure, we as humans do what we can to improve it, but I am of the opinion that a clever combination of "Nature's choicest products," is a safer, healthier, more economically balanced method of eating than to chemically alter the food we eat.

Unit II Lab Project: Light My [metabolic] Fire

I am a person with an average blood pressure. I don't breathe like a rabbit. (except after heavy running, I'm slightly asthmatic) I think my relatively laid back nature contributes to this. My girlfriend's father has high blood pressure. We measured his blood pressure, once, after an argument between and his twin daughters and it was soaring at somewhere around 146/85. ( and wouldn't twin 17 year-olds do that to anyone?) This was a couple of years ago, and I never thought of how stress affected blood pressure and metabolism before that. I didn't really give it much thought afterward until the recent science unit. Then I started to wonder how different activities, environments and substances affect metabolism. (don't worry, when I say substances Iam referring to foods and such.)

When taking my rates, I was fortunate enough to live with the former nursing teacher of Prescott High School, Bill King. Though, the photo below shows me taking my own blood pressure, it is false. I had him measure it for me. I did however measure my own heart rate via the stethoscope shown. The pictures are low quality, I know, but they make the point.

Anyway, when taking my base rates, I simply sat on a chair (once) and my bed (twice). The resulting values are below.


























Baseline
Pulse................................ Mean
52 55 58 52 52............... 53.8
Resp
44 50 38 38 40............... 42
Systolic
122 120 123 120 120..... 121
Diastolic
70 68 68 70 70................ 69.2

From here I chose three activities to do to see what the resulting metabolism changes would be from each. The activities chosen were: 1. sit upside down for one minute 2. read for five minutes 3. work on painting a portrait for 10 minutes
For the first, sitting upside down for a minute at a time, I hypothesize that my heart will go up, because the body will work harder to perform the normal function. The reason I believe so, is that, though being upside down is strangely relaxing, it is not normal for the body and has to work against the way it is naturally tuned. Naturally my reasoning cannot be tested here, but results on metabolism can be, which will at least give me a frame of whether my idea can have merit or not.
For the second, reading for five minutes at a time, I hypothesize that my metabolism will stay relatively similar if not going up slightly. I believe so, because, though mentally I will be stimulated, it is not a physically stressing process.
For the third, painting for ten minutes at a time, I hypothesize that my metabolism will rise. I will see a significant change in blood pressure and a slight change in breathing. The reason is because painting both excites me and makes me anxious. The anxiety is not intense, but coupled with the excitement I think it will make a change in metabolic rates.

For my first activity I sat down upside down on my couch for a minute at a time. I did this like so:

I simply measure the time with a regular watch and then immediately took my respiratory rate, blood pressure and heart rate. I interchanged the order in which I took them to see if it would make a difference whether I took breathing first or breathing last, for example.

For my second activity, reading a book for five minutes at a time, I sat in a folding chair and read, like so:
I like to read a lot. Many of the books I read have view points that differ greatly from my own. For the purpose of keeping relaxed, I read a personally agreeable book. I read for in five minute increments and took my rates, switching the order of each as I did in the first activity.

For my third activity I stood and painted on a portrait that I have been working on for ten minutes at a time. I, of course, did this like so:

Though this picture looks set up, I am really working in it, haha. I just worked in ten minute units and followed the same process as I did in the first two for gathering the information.

The information was as follows:


Activity 1
Pulse....................Mean
72 80 78............. 76.7
Resp
43 44 48 .............45
Systolic
130 132 130....... 130.7
Diastolic
78 80 80............. 79.3
Activity 2
Pulse
56 56 58............. 56.7
Resp
22 23 20............. 21.7
Systolic
125 125 125........ 125
Diastolic
72 78 78............... 76
Activity 3
Pulse
50 52 50............. 50.7
Resp
35 30 32............. 32.3
Systolic
130 130 130...... 130
Diastolic
75 80 78 .............77.7




Each of the metabolic rates were graphed. The activities were compared in four different graphs, one for each rate. These are the graphs:

































Here we can see consistencies and deviations from my hypotheses. The idea that metabolic rates would raise for activities one and three were, for the most part, true. This was even true of the hypothesis for activity, they did raise slightly. However, I was apparently wrong in my hypothesis about rising pulse from painting. My heart rate was strangely slow, especially considering the significant rise in all other areas. My pulse after painting was even slower than my baseline pulse. This is very odd, indeed.

I believe there were problematic methods, devices and environments in this lab. First of all, I did not use an electronic pressure cuff. Though it was professional equipment, used by a professional, Mr. King admitted that it hadn't been used in a while and there may have been pressure issues. Secondly, there was no way to measure all four rates at once. The best remedy I could come up with was to alternate in which order I measured them. There is no way to assure that these results were completely accurate. Lastly, I listened to music when I painted. I didn't really think about it until afterward, but I now realize that changing the setting with something like music or visuals may have an effect on the metabolic rates.

It seems to me that all forms of stimulation affect the physiology of the circulatory and respiratory systems. Whether physical of mental, stimulation will boost the metabolic rates. Physical changes seem to catalyze more so than mental stimulation. The heart gets to pumping to get more oxygen to any stimulated part of the body: legs, brain, hands, etc. This was a very fun and interesting lab. I should try the experiments again, if for no other reason than to sit upside down again, with warrant!

Wednesday, March 19, 2008

What Goes In Might Spread Out!: A Day of Food

Today was a strange day to track food intake, but it's the only day I lived in the past 22 hours, so it's what I've got to work with.

The food calculator had strange combinations and limited options so I got as close as I could with the selections. I started my day with a bagel with sun dried tomato and herb cream cheese. For lunch I had pot roast with mashed potatoes. I had some baby carrots and a few pita chips with hummus as a snack. For dinner I ate a hot dog with no bun and some carrots and cherry tomatoes (couldn't be found on the calorie calc.) That was and will be it, since it somehow got to be 10:21 PM. Here is the calculator's version of what I had:
On a 2000 calorie diet this states that I consumed 138% of my daily fat allowance. I don't think that was true, because the hot dog I ate, first of all, was an all turkey frank. Next, the serving of Pot Roast I had was not quite as large as the one above. Lastly, the pita and hummus in the menu is a plate (huge!) not at all what I ate for a snack. Even so, I'm sure I was pretty close to my total fat allowance.

This is not a terrible diet, but a strange one for me. I wouldn't normally eat pot roast for lunch and a single hot dog for dinner.

If I were to have eaten ideally today, It would have probably gone like this: granola and yogurt for breakfast. Orange for a snack. Turkey sandwich for lunch (whole wheat bread one slice Swiss cheese, NO MAYO because I don't like it, not for health. Plenty of plain mustard, tomato, spinach.) apple and baby carrots for a snack. And, not because I am disciplined but because the cook makes us buy healthy, something light with lots of greens and probably grilled chicken.
I do not always eat well. There are just those days when the chips overtake me, or I just gotta get a soft serve cone from DQ. I try not to let it happen often.

Nutritional tracking is very helpful and I would highly recommend it to people who know they need a serious change in their diets. I used to log everything religiously, especially when I was trying to gain 10 lbs of muscle and get down to 11% body fat. I got tired of it, though and now I am back to eating, mostly, what I have already charted as safe to maintain a good weight and have well-balanced nutrition. If DQ keeps calling, I may have to start again!

Monday, March 17, 2008

Compendium II Unit II

I. Digestion and Nutrition

A. Overview

B. Take Me to the Factory: Digestion, Part I

C. Stomach and Small Intestine

D. Pancreas, Liver, Gallbladder and Their Juices

E. Out With It!

F. Nutrition and Weight Control



I. Digestion

A. Overview
All the organs of the digestive system are found in the gastrointestinal tract (GI): a very long tube running through the body. Digestion is the way t
he body breaks down macromolecules in food into basic molecules for absorption and use by cells. The five main processes of digestion are: ingestion(intake of food through the mouth), digestion (the breakdown of food from, mechanical to chemical, for nutrients), movement (transport from organ to organ to expulsion.), absorption (broken down unit molecules pass through the GI tract then into the bloodstream.) and elimination (removal of undigested waste.)
The GI tract has four layers.
The inside space is called lumen. The first layer is the mucosa. It produces mucus that protect the wall from enzymes. It can secrete enzymes or recieve them from other enzyme-secreting organs. The second layer is the submucosa. This layer is made of loose tissue containing blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves. It also contains lymph nodules that protect from infection. The third layer is the muscularis. It contains two layers of muscle. The first layer circles the tract and the second lies the same way as the tract. These muscles contract to move food through the GI. The fourth layer is the serosa. The serosa is also part of the lining of the abdominal cavity.


The Digestive system. A: mouth, B: esophagus, C: stomach
D: small intestine, E: large intestine.

B. Take me to the factory: digestion, part I
The mouth, pharynx and esophagus are the first section of digestion in
the first part of the GI tract. The mouth receives food. It begins mechanical and chemical digestion. The roof of the mouth separates the nasal and oral cavities. The front part is the hard palate. The back is the soft palate. There are three pairs of salivary glands that send saliva to the mouth. The openings of the salivary ducts are on either side of the mouth by the molars, underneath the tongue and on the floor of the oral cavity. Saliva contains mucus, water, bicarbonate and the enzyme, salivary amylase.
Teeth are used in mechanical digestion to break down food. there are 32 teeth in the adult mouth. The crown of the tooth covers the dentin and pulp in a very hard bone-like material called enamel. The tongue is covered with a mucous membrane. In this are the taste buds, for sensing taste. The tongue moves food around for the teeth to chew and lumps food into a mass then pushes it toward the pharynx.

The pharynx is a cavity that contains both food and air passages. The esophagus is found here. Swallowing is voluntary from the mouth to the pharynx. However, from the pharynx down the process is reflexive. The soft palate closes of the nasal cavity. The The larynx rises which causes the glottis to block of the epiglottis (so food does not go down the air passage.) Peristalsis is a contracting that pushes food along the esophagus and through the digestive tract. Sphincters are muscles around digestive tubes that act as valves that keep food and acid down.

C. Stomach and small intestine

Continuing through the GI we come to the stomach. It is located beneath the diaphragm on the left side of the body. Thick-walled organ stores food, begins the digestion of protein and controls the flow of the now semi-fluid chyme into the small intestine. The stomach does not absorb food. The muscularis around the stomach have three layers of muscle. A layer of oblique muscle is added to the wall at the stomach which makes it able to stretch and mechanically digest even further. Openings in the stomach, called gastric pits release gastric juice from the gastric glands. An enzyme called pepsin is contained in the gastric juice. Also found is hydrochloric acid that kills most bacteria entering the stomach. It also activates pepsin in protein-rich foods. Due to peristaltic waves, the contents of the stomach are released into the lower intestine a bit at a time.
The small intestine is on average about 18 feet l
ong. It contains every type of enzyme for digesting all kinds of foods. The enzymes come from the pancreas. Bile also enters, which breaks up fat into droplets and is then hydrolyzed by lipase. Amylase and intestinal enzymes break down carbohydrates into glucose. Pancreatic trypsin and intestinal enzymes break down proteins into amino acids. The basic content of the small intestine neutralizes the acidity of chyme. The mucosa of the small intestine is modified for nutrient absorption. Projections called villi contain microscopic, microvilli (projections.) All in all, this greatly increases the surface area of the small intestine for greater absorption. Capillaries run through the villi as well as lymphatic vessels called lacteal. The lacteal absorb chylomicrons (villus-packaged combo of fatty acids and lipoproteins.) Some people lack the brush border enzyme, lactase which breaks down the sugar, lactose (the main sugar of milk and other dairy.) The resulting disorder is lactose intolerance. It causes gas, bloating and even diarrhea. Cheese and yogurt have already had the lactose broken down and is safe for the lactose intolerant. Intake of too much sugar and fat causes obesity which can lead to diabetes two and/or cardiovascular disease. Healthy diet and exercise can combat this.


A cutaway of the villi, of the small intestine.
D. Pancreas, gallbladder, liver and their juices
These particular organs are called accessory organs because they are accessed for digestion without having food pass directly through. them. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice. It contains sodium bicarbonate and the enzymes: pancreatic amylase, trypsi
n and lipase. It also secretes insulin into blood. Insulin regulates glucose levels. The liver is the largest accessory organ. The liver receives blood to filter out wastes and toxins. The liver also stores iron and vitamins:A, E, K, D and B12 that have come from the blood. It stores insulin-present glucose as glycogen and releases it steadily between meals. After converting amino acids into glucose the combine the unused acids with CO2. to make urea for expulsion. In addition the liver produces bile which regulates the amount of cholesterol in the blood. It is stored in the gallbladder, just below the liver, until released into the small intestine.
Hepatitis and cirrhosis are two disorders that affect the liver. They are serious and life-threatening. . Jaundice can occur, a symptom in which bile leaks into the blood giving the skin and eyes a yellowish tint. Hepatitis, in all its types, is a virus which can be spread through sewage-contaminated drinking water (Hepatitis A), sexual contact or blood transfusion (Hepatitis B, C.) Cirrhosis causes the liver to become overly fatty. Then scar tissue replaces liver tissue. This occurs from over activity from fatty foods and/or alcohol. Artificial livers have been tested and liver transplants are the only option for liver failure, otherwise: death.
Jaundice has caused the eyes of this person, with
Hepatitis A, to turn yellow.

E. Out with it!
After the small intestine, comes the large intestine, which includes the cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal. The cecum has a the appendix projecting from it, which may help fight infection. The colon makes up the majority of the large intestine. It has three parts: ascending, transverse and descending. Then comes the rectum which opens at the anus. The large intestine does not absorb nutrients. It does, however, absorb water for hydration and vitamins produced by bacteria. Feces are formed in the large intestine. 25% of the feces is made up of dietary fiber, bacteria and indigestible material. The other 75% is fluid. Bacterial breakdown causes the odor and gas associated with feces. Defecation is the final phase of digestion. When peristalsis occurs at the rectum the feces are forced into the rectum. Nerve endings send a signal to relax the anus and contract the rectum muscles. Exit occurs.
Many disorders can occur in the large intestine. Diarrhea is usually caused by infection in the lower intestinal tract. Peristalsis increases with irritation. Prolonged diarrhea can causes dehydration and heart contraction disturbance. Constipation is caused frequently from the resistance of the urge to defecate. Hemorrhoids may develop from chronic constipation. These are inflamed blood vessels at the anus. Diverticulosis is caused from patches of mucosa pushing out through the muscularis. Irritable Bowel Syndrome occurs when the muscularis contracts strongly and irregularly. Inflammatory Bowel Disease is the title given to a collection of disorders which cause ulcers. Dietary fat may cause the promotion of colon cancer while fiber appears to inhibit the development of polyps and colon cancer.
The bulge shown is colonic polyp.

F. Nutrition and weight control
Obesity is on the rise worldwide and especially in the United States. This is of great concern because excess fat is linked to diabetes type 2, hypertension, heart disease and premature death. The Body Mass Index (BMI) shows healthy weights as well as warns of overweight and obesity. This can be determined by dividing one's weight in kilograms by the square of the individual's height. Healthy BMIs are between 19.1 and 26.4. Overweight is 26.5 to 31.1. Obesed is 32.3 to 39.9 and 40 and over is morbid obesity. Although, this is only a general rule. The BMI does not take into account factors such as gender, bone structure, muscle content and fitness.
Nutrients are the part of food that is used by the body. Carbohydrates, as studied in chapter two, are consumed and turned into, if not already available as, glucose. It is a major energy source and vital to brain function. Foods with complex carbohydrates can be very good for you, especially since many, naturally, contain vitamins, minerals and fiber. However refined carbohydrates lack other nutrients. The overconsumption of them is probably responsible for obesity in the US. Proteins are digested into amino acids. Some are absolutely integral to the diet. Eggs, milk, meat, poultry and most other animal-derived foods contain all the essential amino acids. No plant source has in itself all of the essential amino acids, except soy products. Amino acids are not stored so a daily supply is necessary. It does not take much, though. Many people take in too much protein daily. Excess amino acids can be ingested by those who think it will increase muscle mass. They are important to muscle building, but too much is just excreted by the body in urine, which can cause dehydration. Lipids are any of the oils, fats and cholesterols. Saturated fats mostly come from animals, save for palm and coconut oil. Polyunsaturated fats, in oils, are important to the diet. Canola oil and safflower oil contain linoleic and linolenic acids, which the body doesn't produce. Olive oil and canola oil contain good amounts omega-3 fatty acids which are great for fighting heart disease. Saturated fats and cholesterol are the major contributors to cardiovascular disease and must be consumed moderately. Minerals are important to the body and are used in different ways. Calcium contributes to strong bones and teeth and to muscle contraction. Phosphorus is essential to bone and soft tissue growth and ATP. Potassium is used in nerve conduction and muscle contraction. Sulfur. Stabilizes protein shape and neutralizes toxins. Sodium is important to pH and water balance. Magnesium is contained in many enzymes for nerve contraction and muscle contraction and is integral to protein synthesis. Zinc is needed for protein synthesis and contributes to healing and fetal development. Iron is very important to hemoglobin. Copper is as well. Iodine is essential to thyroid hormone production. Selenium is found the antioxidant enzyme and manganese is an essential ingredient to enzymes.
Vitamins, organic compounds, are used for metabolic purposes. The body does not produce an adequate amount of vitamins. Some vitamins are parts of coenzymes. Vitamins have various functions. Vitamins C, E and A are antioxidants which fight cancer-causing free radicals. Vitamin D is essential to proper calcium absorption.
A nutritious diet is important to healthy living. It is important to: eat food from all food groups. A lot of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and low-fat milk should be eaten. Eat less food high in saturated and trans fat, added sugar, cholesterol, salt and alcohol. Eat lean meat and dry beans and peas for protein. Lastly, it is very important to remain physically active.
Some people suffer from different eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa is a disorder in which a person has an unreasonable fear of being fat. People with anorexia usually starve themselves and have marked binges of eating. Bulimia Nervosa is marked by binge-eating and then purging to keep from gaining weight. Purging is done through self-induced vomiting and overuse of laxatives. Binge-eating disorder is marked by periods of overeating. Muscle dysmorphia is a disorder where a person believes he or she is not muscular enough. These people obsess over diet and weight training.


Tofu, a soy product, is an excellent source of
essential amino acids.

Sources:

Digestive system http://www.i-can-drink-milk-again.com/images/Human-Digestive-System-Picture.jpg

Jaundice http://www.in.gov/isdh/programs/hivstd/hepatitis/figure2.gif

Polyp http://www.bowelcheck.co.nz/images/polyp-colon.jpg

Tofu Robot http://zedomax.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/04/tofu-robot-1.gif

Monday, March 10, 2008

Compendium I Unit II

I. Heart & Blood

A. The cardiovascular system

B. Types of blood vessels

C. Double pump

D. Its features include...

E. Robert Frost, eat your heart out (two pathways)

F. Take this! Take that!

G. Disorders

II. Blood

A. Blood

B. Red Blood Cells

C. White Blood Cells

D. Platelets

E. Blood Typing

F. Homeostasis

III. Lymphatic System and Immunity

A. Microbes, pathogens and You

B. The Lymphatic System

C. Nonspecific Defenses

D. Specific Defenses

E. Acquired Immunity

F. Hypersensitivity Reactions

I. Heart and Blood

A. The cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system is the heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood. The blood vessels carry blood, which carry nutrients and oxygen and carry carbon dioxide and wastes to dispel. The exchange of nutrients and waste happens with the tissue fluid and not with actual cells. An overview of the functions of the cardiovascular system includes: blood pumping by the heart through contractions, vessels transporting blood from the heart to capillaries and veins then back to the heart, nutrient/waste exchange at the capillaries (the smallest of blood vessels), regulation of blood flow by the heart and vessels according to bodily need.
The lymphatic system works hand in hand with the cardiovascular system in collecting and returning excess and necessary fluid to the blood.
A diagram of the cardiovascular system
B. Types of blood vessels

There are three different types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries are the thickest of blood vessels. There are three layers to the wall of an artery. The first is the endothelium, which is very thin. . The second is fairly thick and made of elastic tissue. The outer layer is made of connective tissue. A small version of the artery is the arteriole, which have more muscle fiber than elastic tissue. These properties help arteries to contract and dilate.
Capillaries are at the end of arterioles. They cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are made of only one wall of endothelium. Capillary beds, which are vast networks of capillaries, are found in every different area of the human body. Only certain beds are open at any time. When a bed is closed the precapillary sphincter contracts, shutting off and redirecting the flow of blood.
Vein walls are similar to arterial walls in make up. Veins, however, have less connective tissue and less elastic tissue. Venules are small passageways that direct blood from capillaries to veins. Veins usually have valves. These valves keep blood flowing to the heart when open and stop blood from flowing backward when the veins are closed. These are necessary in veins that carry blood from the feet to the heart, for example. Veins carry most of the blood at any given time. This way blood can be "held" and redirected in times of hemorrhaging.
a cutaway of the artery wall
C. Double pump

The heart is a large muscular organs (approximately the size of ones fist with the other hand clasping the fist.) which is found between the lungs and behind the sternum. Most of the heart consists of the myocardium. This muscular tissue pumps blood. The pericardium surrounds the heart and supports and protects it. Inside the septum separates the heart into two sides. There are four chambers to the heart. The upper two are the left atrium and the right atrium. The two lower chambers are the left and right ventricles. The valves that may between the atria and ventricles are called atrioventricular valves. Chordae tendineae, muscles attached to the ventricular walls, keep the valves from inverting when the heart contracts. The right valve is called the tricuspid, because of its three flaps. The left valve is called the bicuspid, because of its two flaps. The other valves are the semilunar valves. These go from the ventricles to their respective vessels.
There is a complex system through which blood flows through the heart. Here is a list of vessels and systems in the heart and their functions: The superior and inferior vena cava carry blood low in O2 to right atrium which sends the blood through the tricuspid to the right ventricle. It sends the blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The trunk carries the blood into two divided pulmonary arteries which carries the blood to the lungs. From the lungs the blood is carried by 4 pulmonary veins into the left atrium. From here it is sent through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle. The blood is, then, sent through the aortic semilunar valve. into the aorta and into the body. The blood is never mixed between O2 rich and O2. This is an amazingly complex system. Because the left chambers have the harder work, they are thicker and better equipped for the harder task of pumping blood further. Blood pressure is also significantly greater on this side of the heart.
Every heartbeat is called a cardiac cycle. First both atria contract, then both ventricles contract. After this all chambers relax. The contraction phase is called systole. The relaxation period is called diastole. An average amount of heart beats per minute is about 70. The sinoatrial node is what generates the heartbeat internally. It is referred to as the pacemaker. The medulla oblungata contains a cardiac control that monitors external conditions and reacts accordingly to regulate heartbeat. It will release hormones that can stimulate higher heartbeat rates. This happens during periods of activity, like exercise.
This diagram shows both ways that blood flows
D. Its features include...

Blood pressure is strongest in the aorta, as this is where is first travels through when the ventricles contract. It becomes progressively weaker and is weakest in the venae cavae of the right atrium. The heart pump makes the blood vessels stretch and return in a rhythmic fashion. This is the pulse. Pulses are commonly felt in the wrist (the radial artery) and in the neck and heel (the cartoid artery.) Blood pressure is defined as the pressure blood places on a vessel wall. A device called a sphygmomanometer is used to read blood pressure. A band is tightened around an artery until its pressure is higher than the blood pressure. As pressure is released from the band the sphygmomanometer will pick up the pulse. The first jump of pressure is the systolic pressure. This is the highest point of blood pressure and is achieved when blood is ejected from the heart. The last pulse caught reads the diastolic pressure. This is the lowest point of blood pressure and occurs when the ventricles are relaxed. When blood pressure is read it is shown as systolic over diastolic. Normal blood pressure can have a systolic value of anywhere from 95-135. The diastolic norm is between 50 and 90. When the blood pressure of an individual is higher than these they have hypertension. If it is lower than it is called hypotension. Blood flows much slower in capillaries, which aids in a good exchange of substances with tissue fluid. Since blood pressure is slower in veins they depend on factors other than blood pressure to pump blood back to the heart. These are the skeletal muscle pump, the respiratory pump and valves. When pressure is released by both the skeletal muscles and the abdominal cavity (from breathing) valves close, keeping blood from flowing back down.

E. Robert Frost, eat your heart out (two pathways)

There are two circuits the blood flows in: the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. The pulmonary circuit circulates blood through the lungs. When blood returns to the heart it is pumped through the right atrium into the pulmonary trunk. The blood goes into one of the two pulmonary arteries and releases CO2 through the capillaries into the lungs. The blood cells pick up oxygen and then go into one of the four pulmonary veins that lead into the left atrium. The systemic circuit includes the pathways of blood to all other parts of the body where oxygen is taken to be exchanged for CO2 with tissue fluid. Then the CO2 rich blood returns to the heart. The major artery is the aorta. The major veins are the superior and inferior vena cava. Other arteries include the mesenteric, the common iliac, femoral, renal, subclavian and the cartoid. Common veins are the internal and external jugular, renal, mesenteric, common iliac, femoral and the great saphenous vein. Coronary arteries supply the hearts blood. It is not nourished by the blood in its chambers. The coronary arteries are the first branches of the aorta. Their small diameter makes them more susceptible to clogging then other arteries. This is what cardiovascular disease is, essentially.

F. Take this! Take that!

Blood pressure moves water from capillaries to tissue fluid. Osmotic pressure moves water from tissue fluid to blood. Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the end of arterial vessels. This causes water to exit to tissue fluid here. Diffusion happens in the middle of the capillary where the pressures are equal. Oxygen and nutrients exit the vessel and CO2 diffuses into the vessel. At the venule end osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure and water moves into the capillary. Lymphatic capillaries catch excess tissue fluid. The fluid is returned to the blood vessels at the subclavian veins.



The order of operations in the capillaries
G. Disorders

There are various cardiovascular disorders. Hypertension and atherosclerosis are two that affect the blood vessels, specifically. Hypertension is an abnormally high blood pressure. It can be the cause of stroke heart attacks, strokes or kidney failure. Atherosclerosis is a storing of cholesterol in the arteries. These deposits are called plaque. This will interfere with the flow of blood. Plaque can cause clots to form on arterial walls. A stationary clot is called a thrombus. When a clot moves it is called an embolus. Thromboembolism is a clot that moved but became stationary. This is a very dangerous disorder. Smoking, high-fat diets and lots of cholesterol all contribute to atherosclerosis. This can, naturally, lead to a heart attack. Anuerysms are also associated with hypertension and atherosclerosis. Anuerysms cause a blood vessels to swell. This happens mostly in the abdominal arteries and in the arteries leading to the brain.
When a person suffers a heart attack their heart is weaker. It has become saggy and/or swollen. There can be an abnormal beating. When this has happened it is sometimes necessary to put in a cardioverter- defibrillator. This will generate missing beats and, with electricity, send a jolt to slow the heart down when too fast. Heart transplants are also an option, but an unlikely one. Many more people are waiting for a heart than are hearts available. Genetically altered pig hearts are a possible avenue in the future. Other rarely-used devices are LVADs and the Jarvik 2000 which are pumps ran by external batteries. Very few people have received TAHs (total artificial hearts) these are controlled by an external battery feeds energy to an internal coil through the skin. The internal battery regulates the heart rate. The heart is an artificial pump.



II Blood

A. Blood
Humans have about 5 liters of blood. There are three functions of blood: transport, defense and regulation. Blood transport different substances to tissue fluid for cellular use throughout the body. The main commodity for transport is oxygen, absolutely necessary to cellular activity. It then takes away waste, like CO2, for expulsion. Blood also carries hormones from their area of origin to organs and tissue in need of them. Some blood cells fight and kill pathogens in the body. Some do this directly and others secrete antibodies, which render pathogens useless, making them easier to kill. Defense also includes repair. When a blood vessel is opened blood clots using platelets and plasma to seal up the wound until it heals. Blood also keeps homeostasis in the body. Blood holds heat and when it is too hot, releases it through vessels close to the skin. Blood keeps bodily p
H fairly constant, as well.
Blood is considered a liquid tissue because it cells and cell fragments, known
as formed elements, are engulfed in plasma. red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are the formed elements of blood. These originate in red bone marrow. The stem cells in red marrow will eventually become specific formed elements in blood. Though red blood cells are much smaller than white blood cells there are many many more of them in any given area.
Plasma is about 91% water and 9% organic molecules and salts. Salts maintain the pH of blood. Plasma carries and distributes heat. Plasma proteins in plasma help keep the pH balance as well as keep in plasma at capillary exchange. Albumins, globulins and fibrogens are the three major types of plasma proteins. Their functions include osmotic pressure, transport and blood clotting.

B. Red blood cells
The proper name for red blood cells is erythrocytes. They are nucleus-less, biconcave (concave on both sides) and are incredibly bountiful. Their main function is carrying oxygen. Red blood cells contain a lot of hemoglobin: a compound that contains iron for oxygen pick up and release and protein. Each red blood cell carries over one billion O2 molecules. Red blood cells get their concave shape from losing their nucleus as they grow. This shape gives a
larger surface area which is great for gas release and collection. They do not use any oxygen they carry and make ATP anaerobically.
The protein in hemoglobin picks up CO2 as well as the plasma, which takes it with hydrogen. Once in the lungs the CO2 is released through diffusion. As previously stated, red blood cells are produced in red bone marrow. They begin with stem cells with nuclei. When they divide they become red blood cells devoid of a nucleus. When their cycle is done they are destroyed by white blood cells in the liver and spleen. About 2 million red blood cells ar
e created every second and 2 million are destroyed in the same time. Hemoglobin is released at RBC destruction. The proteins are broke down into amino acids and distributed. The iron is returned to the bone marrow for reuse.
Blood doping is an artificial versi
on of the body's way of producing more red blood cells when necessary. This is done when more oxygen is needed in the body. The process is this: the kidney release erythropoietin. This stimulates stem cells in marrow and catalyzes RBC production. Athletes have done this process by injecting EPO into themselves and then removing blood and concentrated before returning them to the blood. This is a dangerous process that has killed cyclists, specifically, because of the sport's preference for blood doping.
There are specific red blood cell-related disorders. Anemia is a lack of sufficient RBCs of from lack of hemoglobin. One suffering from anemia feels fatigued.
Often this happens from B vitamin deficiency. Hemolysis is a disorder in which red blood cells rupture. Sickle cell disease is a condition in which the oddly-shaped RBCs tend to rupture in the capillaries.

A photo of red blood cells
C. White blood cells
Leukocytes is the proper name of white blood cells. White blood cells aren't actually white, but are transparent. They are much larger than red blood cells and contain a nucleus. They do not carry hemoglobin. White blood cells are integral to immunity.There are different typ
es of white blood cells. nuetrophils are the most abundant. They are the first response to bacterial infection. When they die their collection in an area often becomes pus. Eosinophils increase in number when an allergic reaction or a parasitic worm are present. Basophils release histamine which causes blood vessel dilation and air tube constriction. Lymphocytes make up about 25-30% of all white blood cells. They are active in immunity to poisonous substances. there are two different types of lymphocytes: b cells and t cells. B cells make antibodies. T cells destroy pathogens. Monocytes are the largest white blood cell. Their job is to act as vacuum cleaners. They phagocytize debris, dead cells and pathogens. They also send out a sort of warning signal to lymphocytes for defense.
There are different disorders of white blood cells. The lack of the enzyme adenosine deaminase causes sever combined immunodeficiency disease. There are about 100 babies born with SCID every year. The only treatments are regular injections of the lacking enzyme and gene therapy. Leukemia is an uncontrollable growth of one or more groups of white blood cells. They do not perform their normal function because of mutation. Epstein-Barr virus is
responsible for infectious mononucleosis when infecting lymphocytes. EBV is a very common human virus. The symptoms of mono will disappear after a month or two, but the virus will stay dormant in a person all of their life. It is called the kissing disease because it can be passed through saliva, which definitely occurs during kissing.

D. Platelets
Thrombocyte is the proper name for a blood platelet. Platelets are not cells, but cell fragments. 200 billion platelets are produced in a human body each day. They are crucial to blood clotting. They work in conjunction with thrombin and
fibrinogen (plasma proteins manufactured in the liver) to achieve clotting. Platelets clump at the sight of a break in a vessel. When the cut or puncture is large a blood clot is necessary. Platelets will release prothrombin activator. This turns prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombrin cuts fibrogin into two chains. The fragments will join end to end into a large threadlike chain called fibrin. Fibrin, then, creates a sort of web in the broken area of the vessel. Red blood cells get caught in the fibrin which gives a clot its red color.
Thrombocytopenia is a lack of sufficient amounts of platelets. Complications in
clude bleeding in the brain, nose, gastrointestinal tract, mouth as well as rashes and bruising. Clotting can also occur around plaque, in a blood vessel. This can cause heart attacks. Hemophilia is a disorder which can cause bleeding into the joints and at worst the brain which often causes death.

E. Blood typing
There are different types of blood. The type depends on the antigens in the membranes and the antibodies of the blood. The different types are referred to as A, B, AB and O. Another property is the the Rh factor. Rh is an antigen that is present in only some individuals. Rh antigens would possibly be destroyed by Rh antibodies in Rh- blood. This is important when multiple Rh+ children are born to Rh- women. The subsequent children could have blood cells destroyed by anti Rh antibodies that developed from previous exposure to Rh antigens. If an Rh- women gives birth to an Rh+ positive child, she can be given a shot of Rh immunoglobulin within 72 hours. This prevents the damage to any subsequent Rh+ positive children. Antibodies are an important factor in transfusion because antibodies from certain types of blood would connect blood cells with the proper antigen together. This causes clumping kno
wn as agglutination. Agglutination must be avoided, which is why blood typing is important to transfusions.

F. Homeostasis
Tissue fluid is derived from blood. It is very similar to plasma, but contains no plasma proteins. Because tissue fluid is collected, transported by and distributed by the lymphatic system its relation to the cardiovascular system is intimate. The cycle for fluid goes: blood plasma, tissue fluid, lymphatic system and back to blood plasma. The cardiovascular system must deliver oxygen and nutrients to needy organs and tissue. It collects oxygen from the l
ungs and nutrients from the digestive system. It then must transport waste from the tissue fluid to the lungs (CO2) and kidneys. Lymphatic vessels must cycle fluid. The muscular system is important to the perpetuation of the cardiovascular system.The Heart and skeletal muscle contraction pump blood and moves lymph. The kidneys help regulate the pH balance as well as the salt-water balance of blood and tissue fluid.

III. The Lymphatic System and Immunity

A. Microbes, pathogens and you
Microbes is a term that encompasses any of the microscopic organisms. They are everywhere and on everything. Many of them exist on and in our bodies. They are not all
harmful, by any means, many of them are quite helpful. Some bacteria produce food and drugs. They are elemental to decomposition. Plants use the nutrients from decompositions to create the molecules that become food for us. Of course there are some harmful microbes. Some bacteria and all viruses are infectious and cause disease. These are called pathogens.
Bacteria are prokaryotes that lack a nucleus. There are three main shapes of bacteria: bacillus (rod shape), spirillum (curved spiral), and coccus (spherical shape.) The cell wall is coated with a gel-like substance that is called the capsule. The capsule gives the ability to s
tick to surfaces. Flagella are a feature of moving bacteria. It is a long, tail-like appendage that rotates for movement. Another adhesive feature are the fimbriae. These little hair-like materials help bacteria stick. A pilus is a feature of some bacteria that causes them to be able to transfer DNA from one cell to another. Bacteria carry an independent ring of genetics called a plasmid. This is where the DNA for most resistance to antibiotics can be found. Bacteria reproduce through a process called binary fission. The cell replicates and splits. Bacteria can double their numbers every 12 minutes. Bacteria can cause disease, they also release byproducts called toxins. Toxins can cause particular symptoms.
Viruses are another microbe that are very peculiar. Viruses are absolutely inactive without a host. However, once inside a host they begin replicating inside cells. Since parasites do not live independently, they are called obligate parasites. They are acellular. A few examples are AIDS, chicken pox, flu and rabies. Viruses are have two parts: an outer capsid, made of protein and an inner core of nucleic acid. Viruses lock onto a cell and from there the nucleic acid enters the cell, having itself replicated by the host. One of the most common forms of virus spread is through a vector. A vector is a carrier, like an insect, that will take the virus from an infected individual to a healthy one.
Prions are proteins in the brain and nervou
s system of animals. When an individual is healthy the function of the prion is unknown. However prions can change their shape, and when they do, they can cause damaging nerve and brain diseases. Prions were once thought to be viral infections. Prion diseases in human are rare.


this picture shows all three shapes of bacteria
B. Lymphatic system
The lymphatic vessels were talked about in the last chapter. Along with them are the lymphatic organs. Its functions are: collect excess tissue fl
uid and return it to blood, absorb fats and transport them to blood, production of lymphocytes to aid, along with other antigens, the immune system in defense. Lymph vessels carry tissue fluid back to blood veins in the shoulders. The two main ducts are on the right and left side of the body and return fluid from their respective side to the blood vessels.
The different lymphatic organs are: red bone marrow, thymus gland, lymph nodes and the spleen. Red bone marrow produces white blood cells. They matu
re here, all except for T lymphocytes which reach maturation in the thymus gland. The lymph nodes and spleen purify, purge and protect lymph. In adults red bone marrow is only found in the sternum, ribs, pelvic girdle, humerus and the femur. The thymus gland produces a hormone called thymosin, which is thought to aid in T lymphocyte maturation. The spleen filters blood. Lymph nodes filter lymph. Lymphatic nodules are areas of concentrated lymphatic tissue that are not encapsulated like lymph nodes. The tonsils is a great example of lymph nodules.

This photo show the location of the lymph nodules, tonsils.
C. Nonspecific defenses
Immunity is the ability to fight and destroy cancers and diseases. nonspecific defenses are immunity features that filter without discrimination. Two of these are barriers of entry and phagocytic white blood cells through the inflammatory response. some examples of barriers of entry are: the skin and mucous membranes (which block out or guard entry ways like the respiratory and digestive system), chemical barriers (chemicals such as lysozyme are antibacterial) and resident bacteria (bacteria that are normally found in t
he body that leave no room for pathogens.)
The inflammatory response can be detected if the are contains: redness,heat, pain and swelling. When an area is damged capillaries dilate causing excess blood flow. This causes redness and heat. The heat can kill some pathogens. This also causes swelling. The blood brings white blood cells to fight infection and help clotting to prevent blood loss. Excess tissue fluid pressing on nerve endings causes the pain. Neutrophils go in first vacuuming up dead cells, bacteria and debris. If the work is too much for neutrophils they secrete a chemical called cytokine. Cytokines attract white blood cells such as monocytes, which are more powerful than neutrophils.
Another helpful immune feature are protective proteins. The operation and composition of these is called the compliment system. These proteins form a complex and produce and attack holes in bacteria. The These holes allow fluids and salts to enter the bacteria until the bacter
ia bursts. Other complement proteins trigger chemical releases and ensure phagocytosis by white blood cells.

D. Specific defenses
The immune system is able to detect foreign particles in the body, called antigens.
Lymphocytes respond to antigens. There are specific lymphocytes for every antigen, because each lymphocyte has a different receptor for every different antigen. When a b lymphocyte connects to an antigen it makes many copies of itself called clones. They will either become plasma b cells which will travel in the bloodstream releasing antibodies, or memory cells, which are there to fight an invasion of the same antigen at a later time. B cell defense is called antibody-mediated immunity. This is because plasma b cells give off antibodies for defense. Antibodies' basic structures are Y-shaped. The antigens fit on the sight receptors on the ends of the light chain branches (the short Y arms.) Either the antibodies will neutralize the pathogen or call for white blood cells to destroy the antigens. There are five different types of antibodies, they are: IgG ( most common), IgM (largest antibody), IgA (main antibody in saliva), IgD (located on immature b cells) and Ige (found in basophils and on mast cells.)
Some t cell defense is called cell-mediated immunity. This is when a t cell directly attacks a pathogen. Other times they release cytokines to stimulate defenses.T cells detect antigens because a macrophage will bring a piece of it for recognition to a lymph node where t cells are concentrated. These helper cells are called antigen-presenting cells. Then the t cells are able to distinguish foreign from regular. The proteins brought for recognition by the APC are called human leukocyte antigens, or HLA. There are two types of HLA (HLA I and HLA II.) If the identified protein is HLA I then the t cells will produce cytotoxic cells, through clonal expansion. Cytotoxic cells latch on to viral infected or tumor cells. They use a chemical called perforin to create holes in the cell. Then they inject enzymes, called granzymes, to cause the cell to die. If the protein displayed in HLA II then the t cell will produce helper t cells through clonal expansion. Helper t cells release cytokines which cause a response from other white blood cells. B cells are not employed actively without helper t cells.

This diagram explains the process
of B cell activation.
E. Acquired immunity
Acquired immunity is the medical intervention which causes immunity. The two types of acquired immunity are active and passive. Active immunity involves the bod's immune system to fight infection. This can happen naturally or artificially. Immunization is an artificial method of active immunity. A vaccine is given to an individual by injection or ingestion. Vaccines contain an antigen from a particular pathogen that triggers the body to fight it. One can measure the immune activity with the antibody titer. This shows the response of antibodies to a vaccination. When a second vaccination is given it is called a booster shot because it increases the response of the antibodies to the particular vaccine. Passive immunity involves the process of using prepared antibodies to combat infection. The individual does not produce these antibodies so passive immunity is not permanent. These can be injected or ingested as well. Sometimes monoclonal antibodies are used from other individuals. Cytokines can be inject to catalyze cytotoxic t cells that were not activated, like in the case of some cancers.

F. Hypersensitivity reactions
Allergies are a hypersensitivity to foreign substances. Allergic reactions are triggered, sometimes within seconds of contact with an allergen. Anaphylactic shock is an allergic reaction that occurs when an allergen has enterd the bloodstream. It is recognized by a sudden drop in blood pressure. Delayed reactions are caused by memory t cells at the contact of allergens. This often happens with allergies that affect the skin.
Another reaction is that of tissue rejection. The body can reject organ transplants. The body recognizes that these tissues are foreign and cytotoxin t cells attack the new tissue cells. Sometimes immunosuppressive drugs are used to aid in transplant success. These drugs inhibit the production of cytokines. Labs are attempting to grow organs that are HLA antigen free, which would make transplant success rates soar.
Sometimes, peoples cytotoxic t cells will attack the body's own cells, mistakenly. This is called autoimmune disease. Its cause is unknown. Sometimes people have immune deficiencies. These people are unable to protect their bodies against infection.





sources

Cardiovascular system http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f22-1_cardiovascular_sy_c.jpg

circulatory system http://www.besthealth.com/besthealth/bodyguide/reftext/images/8747.jpg

artery http://www.csm.ornl.gov/Internships/rams_06/websites/e_lennartz/img/Layers.jpg

capillary exchange http://www.coolschool.ca/lor/BI12/unit9/U09L08/CTFEx.gif

b cell activationhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/B_cell_activation.png/300px-B_cell_activation.png

Saturday, March 8, 2008

Oxygen Circulation Immunity Lab

This lab was not difficult. It was not boring, either. It was however incredibly frustrating. I have no journal to show. I am glad I did take down all of the information, because it never emailed it to me. Needless to say, the professional element is lacking.

Here is the average blood pressures for each group:

Table

1177511776
1287911676
1318111777
1328312781
1348513383

The x-axis shows the average systolic and diastolic pressure of first male then female for each age group. The y-axis shows the age groups starting from the youngest on top to the oldest on the bottom.


This is a graph displaying the information above.

Here is the journal (so to speak) with the questions and answers from the blood pressure investigations.




1.State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

It seems the older one gets the more likely he/she is to have high blood pressure. This is slightly more likely in males than females.



2.Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

3.As the age of an individual in the study increases, so does their blood pressure. this is more likely in males than in females.


4.How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?

Take the average blood pressure of each age group in each gender. compare the average in each age group. record the number of people with hypertension in each age group. compare.


5.Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

males have a steady increase of blood pressure as they get older. Females have a more drastic increase between the ages of 35 and 44. Male blood pressure is usually higher than female blood pressure. It is significantly higher than females in the 25-34 years of age range. perhaps this has more to do with the difference between female and male diet and alcohol consumption.



6.Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

The conclusion supported my hypothesis. The older a person gets the higher their blood pressure gets. The older a person gets the more likely they are to have hypertension.


7.During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

There were a few that were out of the normal range and higher than the average normal range. Those with higher blood pressure often either had high salt intake, were overweight, did not exercise and/or consumed alcohol.


8.List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

I listed the risk factors previously. They include: lack of exercise, obesity, high-sodium diet, history of familiar hypertension and alcohol consumption. The highest risk factor is most likely a history of hypertension.



9.What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

Obesity does affect blood pressure. It usually causes higher blood pressure. Obesity alone rarely causes hypertension. Lack of exercise, history of hypertension and high sodium diet are factors that would increase the risk of hypertension in obese individuals.